Closed word class words

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

Updated on September 06, 2019

In English grammar, closed class refers to the category of function words—that is, parts of speech (or word classes)—that don’t readily accept new members. The closed classes in English include pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and prepositions. In contrast open class words include nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

Examples and Observations

«[C]losed-class words are those belonging to the grammatical, or function, classes…Function words in English include conjunctions (and, or), articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that), and prepositions (to, from, at, with). To take one specific case, consider the word and. The essential feature of the word and is that it functions grammatically to conjoin words and phrases, as seen in the combination of noun phrases the woman and the man. Any change in membership in such a class happens only very slowly (over centuries) and in small increments. Thus, a speaker of English may well encounter dozens of new nouns and verbs during the coming year; but it is extremely unlikely that the English language will acquire a new article (or lose a current one) in the coming year (or even in the speaker’s lifetime).»

—Adrian Akmajian, et al., Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication. MIT, 2001

«Prepositions have gradually expanded their membership somewhat by admitting participles such as including, concerning, but the remaining classes are very resistant to the introduction of new items. This has been noticeable in recent years when attempts have been made to find gender-neutral pronouns.»

—Angela Downing and Philip Locke, English Grammar: A University Course, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2002

Functions of Closed-Class Words

«Closed-class words or ‘function words’ are limited in number and act as markers or guides to the structure of a sentence. The role of articles is to signal nouns. Prepositions mark special relationships between persons, objects, and locations. Conjunctions are connectors that link actors or objects, and specify relationships between clauses in the sentence. Open- and closed-class words occupy certain slots in sentences and set up a frame for interpreting the interrelationships between actors, actions, and objects.»
—Diane McGuinness, Language Development and Learning to Read. MIT, 2005

Open Class Words Evolve to Closed Class Words

«The closed classes include pronouns (you, them), modal verbs (could, must), determiners (a, the), prepositions (of, in), and conjunctions (and, but). New members of these classes are not added to the language very often. Instead, they tend to gradually evolve from lexical words in a process called grammaticalization. For example, the lexical verb go means ‘to move (toward a goal).’ But its progressive form be going (to) has evolved into a grammaticalized prospective (future) marker, as in She’s going to love her gift. The ‘movement’ meaning of go has been bleached out of the grammaticalized version, and so the going in be going to can be considered to be a function word, rather than a content word. The closed classes represent a more restricted range of meanings, and the meanings of closed-class words tend to be less detailed and less referential than open-class words.»

—M. Lynne Murphy, Lexical Meaning. Cambridge University Press, 2010

In order to get to grips with subordinate clauses, it is necessary to complete our review of the closed class words, ie. to focus on the cement rather than the building bricks. A listing of these words is given in 2.1.2.

Closed class words have three main roles in language. (a) They act as «MARKERS» of open class words, ie. they give us warning of what kind of word or clause is likely to occur next. (b) They locate an utterance more precisely in time and space. (c) They link parts of phrases and clauses together. The summary below gives the form and function label where appropriate for each type of word.

7.3.1. Words functioning within the phrase

Some closed class words have a function within the phrase:

7.3.1.1.

Determiners introduce N’s and function as modifiers within the phrase. In sentence frames they precede Aj and N.

They also indicate whether a following noun is definite or indefinite (the book/a book) and its proximity to the speaker (this book/that book).

Enumerators (numerals) are a sub-group of determiners. There are two types of these:

7.3.1.2.

Auxiliary verbs are used to make complex verb forms. There are two types: primary and modal. (See Unit 6.)

7.3.1.3.

Pronouns replace nouns as headwords in phrases.

Pronouns are also used as indefinite subjects:

Sometimes this vague use of it can lead to ambiguity, as in «He opened his mouth and put his foot in it».

Many forms are both determiner and pronoun. If they are determiners, they must have a following noun:

7.3.2. Particles

PARTICLES are closed class words which do not function as M or H in the phrase; they are either labelled «x» or left blank. They include:

7.3.2.1.

Prepositions mark the beginnings of PP’s. They usually indicate the location of the following N. As we have seen (3.5), many forms are both pr and Av. There are also some complex prepositions, such as on top of, out of, outside of. These are treated as single units in analysis. In the last two, the first word is an adverb.

7.3.2.2.

Conjunctions link words, phrases and clauses.

There are two types of conjunctions:

1. CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: and, or, but. These are used to link phrases and clauses which are at the same level in the rank scale.
2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: after, although, as, because, before, if, how, however, like, once, since, than, that, though, till, unless, until, when, where, while; COMPLEX: as far as, as if, in case, in (order) that, rather than, so that, etc.
   These are used to mark subordinate clauses.

CORRELATIVE conjunctions attach to two separate elements. These can be
CO-ORDINATING: both … and, (n)either … (n)or
SUBORDINATING: if … then, although … yet, etc.

7.3.2.3.

Interjections are irrelevant to the structure of the phrase or clause and are therefore placed outside the brackets. A proper name used in this way is sometimes called a VOCATIVE.

7.3.2.4.

Negation: The only word that need concern us here is not and its abbreviation n’t.

Note that never, nowhere etc are adverbs of time, not particles.

In an expression like «no hope», no is a determiner.

Words are the building blocks in any sentence. They just don’t ‘mean’ something, they ‘do’ something in every sentence. Hence words are grouped into word classes based on what they do. A word class is a group of words that have certain common features. The term “word class” is analogous to the more conventional term, “part of speech.” It is also variously named grammatical category, lexical category, and syntactic category.

• Types of Word Classes
• Open and Closed Word Classes
• Open Word Classes
• Closed Word Classes
• How to identify the word classes in a sentence?
• How to classify a word class?
• What is the difference between a word class and part of speech?

Word classes can be divided into two families:

• Lexical Classes: Also known as open classes and form classes. The lexical classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
• Function Classes: Also known as closed classes and structure classes. Includes: pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections.

Open and Closed Word Classes

As previously mentioned some word classes are open, that is, the class can be expanded with the addition of new words. Take the example of the class of nouns, it is potentially infinite as the number of words in the class is increasing as new scientific and technological discoveries are made.

The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed developments in computer technology which have in turn given rise to many new nouns like the Internet, URL website, bitmap, email, etc.

On the other hand, the word classes of prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions are known as closed word classes. Words like of, the, and but come under these. They are named closed word classes because they consist of a definite set of words. These classes never expand even though the words included in the class may change their spelling.

Open Word Classes

1) Nouns

This class includes words that you frequently use in everyday life. Nouns are most commonly understood as “naming” words, that is, it performs the function of naming “people, places or things”.

• A person – Boy, Girl, John, etc
• A thing- House, Dog, etc
• A place- China, America, etc

However, the use of nouns is not restricted to just names of people, places, or things. Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as an idea, quality, or state. Example: Danger, Happiness, Love, etc.

2) Verbs

The words that you use to describe an action are known as verbs. Hence verbs are generally known as “action” words. Have a look at the given example: Rahul rides a scooter. The verb in the above sentence denotes an action that Rahul performs which is the action of riding a scooter.

However, the idea of verbs as “action” words is somewhat restricted. Many verbs don’t stand for action at all as in the given instance: Rahul seems desperate. We cannot say that the verb ‘seems ‘ refer to an action.

3) Adverbs

In English, an adverb describes a word that alters the meaning of a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs in a sentence give you more information about the sentence. They are used to express how an action is fulfilled. Adverbs can broadly be categorized into Simple Adverbs, IInterrogative adverbs, and Relative Adverbs.

Remember:

• Most adverbs end with the common ending – ly.
• An adverb that modifies an adjective or another adverb usually goes before it.

4) Adjectives

Adjectives describe the quality of a noun. For example They stay in a beautiful house

The word beautiful indicates or refers to one of the attributes of the house that is described. Hence beautiful becomes the adjective in the above sentence.

A point to keep in mind: Some adjectives can be identified by their ending. Typical adjective endings include: able, al, ful, ic, etc.

You can even try out our other articles on How to Improve Your Vocabulary as well to expand your knowledge base.

Closed Word Classes

1) Determiners

You might have often noticed that nouns are preceded by words like the, a, or an. These words are known as Determiners. They suggest the type of reference that the noun has.

• The determiner ‘the’ is called a Definite Article. It can be placed both before singular and plural nouns. For example The Taxi, The taxis
• The determiner a or an is known as the Indefinite Article. It is used along with a singular noun. Example: A taxi

Apart from these, many other determiners express quantity. These include ‘al’, ‘both’, ‘many’ etc.

2) Conjunctions

These are used to express connections between different words.

Example: John and David are friends. And is used as a conjunction in the given sentence.
The most familiar conjunctions in English are: and, but, and or.

Conjunctions are further divided into two:

• Coordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect elements of equal syntactic structure. Example: Paul and David study together.
• Subordinating Conjunctions: Connects elements of unequal syntactic structure. Example: I left early because I had an interview the next day.

3) Prepositions

Prepositions indicate the relation between different words. They occur before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase and indicate a direction, time, place, location, and spatial relationship. Common prepositions include across, after, at, before, by, during, from, in, into, of, on, to, under, with, without, etc.

4) Pronouns

If we did not have the pronoun word families we would have to repeat a whole lot of nouns. A word that takes the position of a noun is named as a pronoun. Pronouns can be employed as a substitute for a noun.

• Pronouns are divided into 5 categories:
• Personal Pronouns: I, you, she, etc
• Demonstrative Pronouns: This, these, etc
• Possessive Pronouns: Yours, His, etc
• Interrogative Pronouns: Which, What, etc
• Reflexive Pronouns: Herself, Himself, etc.
• Reciprocal Pronouns: Each other
• Indefinite Pronouns: Few, Nobody, etc.
• Relative Pronouns: Which, Whom, etc.

5) Interjections

Short exclamations like Oh!, Ah! etc are known as Interjections. Even though they have no grammatical value, we often use them in daily speech. Interjections are primarily used to express emotions such as anger, surprise, etc. Given below are a few examples.

Well! That hurts
Hey! Don’t be so clumsy

Remember, an interjection is always followed by an exclamation mark.

Read More:

• English Idioms
• Literary Devices

FAQs on Word Classes

1. How to identify the word classes in a sentence?

A word class is a group of words that have certain common features. To find out the word classes within a sentence it is important that you familiarise yourself with the most common word classes in English. These include nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, etc.

2. How to classify a word class?

Word classes in English belong to two major categories. These are Open word classes that include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The second category is closed word classes that include: pronouns, determiners, interjections, etc.

3. What is the difference between a word class and part of speech?

The term “word class” is analogous to the more conventional term, “part of speech”. Both these terms refer to a group of words that have certain common features.

Conclusion

To understand the grammatical structures of sentences in a better way it’s best if you begin with word classes. Even though comprehending the different word classes may initially be a hectic task, once you master word classes, you will reach the exact meaning or message conveyed by a sentence.

Some words can be assigned to a word class on
the basis of their form or `shape’. For example, many nouns have a
characteristic -tion
ending: 

 

action,
condition,
contemplation,
demonstration,
organization,
repetition

Similarly, many adjectives end in -able
or -ible: 

 

 acceptable,
credible,
miserable,
responsible,
suitable,
terrible

Many words also take what are called
INFLECTIONS, that is, regular changes in their form under certain
conditions. For example, nouns can take a plural inflection, usually
by adding an -s
at the end: 

 

car — cars 

dinner — dinners 

book — books

Verbs also take inflections: 

 

walk — walks
— walked
— walking

1.1.3 The position or `environment’ of a word in a sentence

This criterion refers to where words typically
occur in a sentence, and the kinds of words which typically occur
near to them. We can illustrate the use of this criterion using a
simple example. Compare the following: 

 

[1] I cook
dinner every Sunday 

[2] The cook
is on holiday

In [1], cook
is a verb, but in [2], it is a noun. We can see that it is a verb in
[1] because it takes the inflections which are typical of verbs:  

 

I cook dinner
every Sunday 

I
cooked dinner
last Sunday 

I
am cooking dinner
today 

My
son cooks
dinner every Sunday

And we can see that cook
is a noun in [2] because it takes the plural -s
inflection 

 

The cooks are
on holiday

If
we really need to, we can also apply a replacement test, based on our
first criterion, replacing cook in
each sentence with «similar» words:

Notice that we can replace verbs with verbs,
and nouns with nouns, but we cannot replace verbs with nouns or nouns
with verbs:  

 

*I chef
dinner every Sunday 

*The
eat
is on holiday

  

It
should be clear from this discussion that there is no one-to-one
relation between words and their classes. Cook
can be a verb or a noun — it all
depends on how the word is used. In fact, many words can belong to
more than one word class. Here are some more examples:  

 

She looks very
pale (verb) 

She’s
very proud of her looks (noun) 

He drives a fast
car (adjective) 

He drives very fast
on the motorway (adverb) 

Turn on the light
(noun) 

I’m trying to light
the fire (verb) 

I usually have a light
lunch (adjective)

You will see here that each italicised word can
belong to more than one word class. However, they only belong to one
word class at a time, depending on how they are used. So it is quite
wrong to say, for example, «cook
is a verb». Instead, we have to
say something like «cook
is a verb in the sentence I cook
dinner every Sunday, but it is a
noun in The cook is on holiday«.  

Of the three criteria for word classes that we
have discussed here, the Internet Grammar will emphasise the second
and third — the form of words, and how they are positioned or how
they function in sentences. 

1.2 Open and Closed Word Classes

Some word classes are OPEN, that is, new words
can be added to the class as the need arises. The class of nouns, for
instance, is potentially infinite, since it is continually being
expanded as new scientific discoveries are made, new products are
developed, and new ideas are explored. In the late twentieth century,
for example, developments in computer technology have given rise to
many new nouns:

Internet,
website,
URL,
CD-ROM,
email,
newsgroup,
bitmap,
modem,
multimedia

New verbs have also been introduced:

download,
upload,
reboot,
right-click,
double-click

The adjective and adverb classes can also be
expanded by the addition of new words, though less prolifically. 

On the other hand, we never invent new
prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions. These classes include
words like of,
the,
and but.
They are called CLOSED word classes because they are made up of
finite sets of words which are never expanded (though their members
may change their spelling, for example, over long periods of time).
The subclass of pronouns, within the open noun class, is also
closed. 

Words in an open class are known as open-class
items. Words in a closed class are
known as closed-class items.  

In the pages which follow, we will look in
detail at each of the seven major word classes.

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