Classification of word combination

————————————————————————————————-

  1. Types
    of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.

  2. Free
    word groups.

  3. Phraseology
    as a subsystem of language.

  4. A
    phraseological unit.

  5. Distinction
    between free word-groups and phraseological
    units.

  6. Classification
    of phraseological units.

  7. Sources
    of phraseological units.

————————————————————————————————-

1. Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups

The
vocabulary of any language consists not only of words but also of
different word groups and expressions.
Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups.

A word-combination (word-group) is a combination of two or more
words organizes according to the norms of the language. There are
three types of word-groups: 1) free; 2) semi-free (устойчивые);
3) phraseological units.

They are
different structurally and semantically.

2. Free word groups

Free
word combinations

are structurally and semantically unstable, e.g. a
good man
;
a
good and reliable man
;
a better man
,
a
good woman
.
They are characterized by the following features:

  1. They are
    made up by the speaker; they are productive.

  2. Each word
    in a free word combination realizes its own meaning. For example, in
    the word-combination a
    red rose
    ,
    to
    write a letter
    ,
    extremely
    dangerous
    ,
    each word has its own meaning, and the meaning of the whole phrase
    is the sum of the meanings of its components.

  3. Substitution
    is possible in them.

to walk
fast

to
walk

slowly to move fast

forward
to run

backward
to go

in
the park to drive

in
the forest to fly

Semi-free
or
Fixed
combinations
of
words
are
structurally and semantically stable and the meaning is understood
from the meanings of the components. That means there is no
transference of meaning of these combinations, e.g. a
man of business
;
a
man of letters

(писатель).
They stand midway between free word-combinations and phrasiological
units. They are characterized in the following way:

  1. They are
    fixed because they are not made up in speech but are used as
    ready-made units.

  2. The
    meaning of the whole can be inferred from the meanings of its
    components.

  3. They are
    transitional, semi-productive.

Examples:
soft
landing
,
to
commit suicide
,
good
luck
,
black
coffee
,
Merry
Christmas
,
Good
afternoon
.

3. Phraseology as a subsystem of language

Phraseology
is
a branch of lexicology which studies different types of fixed
expressions, which like words name various objects and phenomena.
They are not created by the speaker but exist in the language as
ready-made units. These word-groups are characterized by stability of
structure and transferred (перенос)
meaning (take
the bull by the horn

–действовать
решительно,
напрямик
= брать
быка
за
рога);
(to
burn one’s boats

совершать
решительный
поступок,
бесповоротно
разрывая
с
прошлым
= сжечь
корабли);
(to
eat a bushel of salt with

очень
долгое
время
общаясь,
хорошо
узнать
кого-либо
= съесть
пуд
соли).

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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups

KEY TERMS

Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.

Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur

Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.

Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words

Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).

Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring

Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.

Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.

The syntagmatic relation explains:

The word position and order.

The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.

The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)

Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words

The adjective yellow:

1. color: a yellow dress;

2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;

3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS

Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.

Some examples of collocations:

  • Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
  • Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
  • Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
  • Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
  • Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
  • Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.

Idioms

Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.

Idioms are distinct from collocations:

  • The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
  • The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom

It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.

Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:

  • Break a leg.
  • Miss the boat.
  • Call it a day.
  • It’s raining cats and dogs.
  • Kill two birds with one stone.

Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.

The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.

Compare,

a) read books

b) read many books

c) read very many books.

In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).

The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.

The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.

The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.

Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.

It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.

With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.

It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero

(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.

One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.

Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.

Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.

The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:

the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;

different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.

From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:

the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);

the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.

The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.

Types of word combinations:

  1. Semantically:
    1. free word groups (collocations) a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
    2. set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
  2. Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
    1. noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
    2. verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
    3. adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
    4. adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
    5. pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
  3. According to the number of the components:
    1. simple the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
    2. Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.

Classifications of word-groups:

  1. through the order and arrangement of the components:

a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);

a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);

  1. by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:

endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);

exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);

  1. according to the headword:

nominal (beautiful garden);

verbal (to fly high);

adjectival (lucky from birth);

  1. according to the syntactic pattern:

predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);

non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:

(a) subordinative (modern technology);

(b) coordinative (husband and wife).

4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.

The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements

Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;

To fall into a rage – to get angry.

Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.

A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.

Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.

Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:

  • My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
  • The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
  • If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)

Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:

  • Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
  • i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
  • I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
  • Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)

Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:

  • It was a dark and stormy night
  • Once upon a time
  • There I was
  • All’s well that ends well
  • They lived happily ever after

6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word

Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.

Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.

The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:

  • trains run — поезда ходят;
  • a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
  • It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
  • Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.

Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».

«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».

«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».

The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:

«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.

Worth & Worthy
Worth is used to say that something has a value:

Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value;

Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made.

Valency:

  1. Worth + N: worth a lot of money;
  2. Worth + Ving: worth making;
  3. [it] + V-ing: it would be worth asking him
  4. [it] + Ν V-ing: it’s not really worth me voting
  5. Worth + N + to N: worth money to me
  6. [it] + Ν + for Ν to-INF (rare): it would be worth for you to know
Worthy:

If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required;

If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person.

Valency:

  1. Attributive: worthy candidate, worthy cause;
  2. Predicative: equally worthy
  3. + to-INF: worthy to be
  4. + of N/V-ing: worthy of closer examination.
Ensure, insure, assure
Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’.

Valency:

  1. + Np: ensure fairness
  2. + (that)-CLp.it: Ensure that there is adequate humidity in heated rooms
  3. + Np + Ν: does not ensure women a place at center stage
  4. + Np + for Ν: to ensure good fishing for everyone.
Insure — make sure

Valency:

  1. + Np: insure continuation;
  2. + (that)-CLp.it: insure that future generations;
  3. + Np + Νp: They will not insure us victory;
  4. + Np + for Ν: insure items for replacement.
Assure:

to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry;

to cause something to be certain.

Valency:

  1. +N: assure the owner;
  2. + (that)-CL: assure him (that) the car will be ready;
  3. + by N: has been assured by the reviews
Observance & Observation
Observance:

the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom:

religious observances such as fasting

a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event:

[ C ] Memorial Day observances

[ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day.

Observation:

the act of observing something or someone;

the fact that you notice or see something;

a remark about something that you have noticed.

Valency:

  1. + of: observation of human behaviour;
  2. Under +: keeping under observation;
  3. For +: to be admitted for observation;
  4. + on/about: interesting observations on the nature;
  5. to make +: may I make an observation.
Go & Walk

Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’:

A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking.

A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there,

A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets.

Valency:

  1. + Np: walk the dog;
  2. +ADJ: made us walk tall again;
  3. + into Np: to walk into a controversy;
  4. +over Np: to walk over me;
  5. ADVP-prep: to walk away/through/away
  6. N + ADV: We had to walk three kilometers to the river.
  7. Np + ADV: Can I walk you home?
  8. ADJ + ADV: it was like walking barefoot in the sand
Influence & Влияние
Influence:

A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well.

Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way

Valency:

  1. the UN is having difficulty exerting its influence;
  2. [the] + to-INF: the influence to lead the world
  3. + on N/wh-CL: influence on the work of the late 19th-century French avant-garde.
  4. + over Ν: Union influence over Labour
  5. + upon Ν: Its influence upon female physiology
  6. + with Ν: to use their influence with the PLO leadership
Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо.

Сочетаемость:

  1. Прил +: значительное влияние
  2. + сущ: влияние среды
  3. Сущ +: сферы влияния;
  4. Гл +: оказывать влияние.
Hold & Держать
Hold:

to take and keep something in your hand or arms;

to support something;

to contain or be able to contain something;

to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave.

Valency:

  1. ADJ +: tight hold;
  2. V +: take/keep hold;
  3. + on: his hold on her;
  4. + OBJ + ADJ: hold the door open;
  5. + OBJ + N: hold him hostage
Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть

Сочетаемость:

  1. Сущ +: ноги держат
  2. + сущ: держать себя в руках, держать дистанцию.
  1. Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:
Chance Шанс
  1. + to-INF: a chance to win;
  2. + (that)-CL: a chance that BA might co-operate;
  3. + for N/V-ing: chance for peace/regaining;
  4. + of N/V-ing /of Ν V-ing: no chance of her accepting;
  5. + for Ν + to-INF: a chance for me to show
  1. Прил +: большой шанс;
  2. + сущ: шанс спасения;
  3. Сущ +: множество шансов;
  4. + гл: шанс даётся
  5. Гл +: дать шанс, оценить свой шанс
Situation Ситуация
  1. As a noun: bland situation, sort of situation;
  2. + that-CL: the situation that I was pregnant;
  3. + wh-CL: the situation when you open the door;
  4. + of N/V-ing: a situation of anarchy;
  5. + with Ν: situation with your husband.
  1. Прил +: чрезвычайная ситуация;
  2. + сущ: ситуация общения;
  3. Сущ +: изменение ситуации;
  4. Гл +: оценить ситуацию;
  5. + гл: ситуация повторилась.
Partner Партнёр
  1. с глаголом be, become, create: to become a partner
  2. существительным live, business: business partner
  1. Прил +: деловой партнёр;
  2. + сущ: партнёр фирмы;
  3. Сущ +: смена партнёра;
  4. Гл +: найти партнёра;
  5. + гл: партнёр решает.
Surprise Сюрприз
  1. to experience surprise (сочетаемость существительных:)
  2. to show surprise (сочетаемость существительных:)
  3. to cause no surprise (сочетаемость существительных:)
  4. to surprise smb (Глагольные словосочетания)
  5. to take smb by surprise (Глагольные словосочетания)
  1. Прил +: небольшой сюрприз;
  2. Сущ +: масса сюрпризов;
  3. Гл +: сделать сюрприз;
  4. + гл: сюрприз удался.
Risk Риск
  1. As a noun: good risk;
  2. + that-CL: the risk that goods go;
  3. + for Ν/[at] + for N/V-ing: the risk for the investor;
  4. + from N/V-ing: risk from pets;
  5. + in N/V-ing: risk in flying south;
  6. + of N/V-ing / of Ν V-ing: the risk of crushing;
  7. + to Ν: a risk to our health;
  8. +for N + to-INF: a risk for Jim to bury Mary there.
  1. Прил +: большой риск;
  2. + сущ: риск заражения;
  3. Сущ +: группа риска;
  4. Гл +: учитывать риск;
  5. + гл: риск возрастает.
Instruction Инструкция
  1. on the instruction of smb (сочетаемость существительных:)
  2. сочетаемость глаголов to make, to create.
  1. Прил +: подробная инструкция;
  2. + сущ: инструкция пользователя;
  3. Сущ +: получение инструкции;
  4. Гл +: следовать инструкции;
  5. + гл: инструкция требовала.
Satisfaction Сатисфакция
  1. with satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:)
  2. to cause satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:)
  3. unique satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:)
  4. total satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:)
  5. personal satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:)
  1. Прил +: полная сатисфакция;
  2. Гл +: получить сатисфакцию;
Business Бизнес
  1. [it/no] + to-INF: He’ll make it his business to find out;
  2. [it/no] + V-ing: no business poking their noses;
  3. + of N/V-ing: the business of intervention;
  4. + with Ν: business with the players
  1. Прил +: семейный бизнес;
  2. + сущ: бизнес отца;
  3. Сущ +: развитие бизнеса;
  4. Гл +: вести бизнес;
  5. + гл: бизнес растёт.
Manager Менеджер
  1. to see the manager (Глагольные словосочетания)
  2. He was promoted to manager. (Глагольные словосочетания)
  3. to apply to the manager (Глагольные словосочетания)
  4. to approach the manager about this matter (Глагольные словосочетания)
  5. The guests asked for the manager. (Глагольные словосочетания)
  1. Прил +: старший менеджер;
  2. + сущ: менеджер группы;
  3. Сущ +: должность менеджера;
  4. Гл +: стать менеджером;
  5. + гл: менеджер сообщил.
Challenge Челлендж
  1. challenge to smb (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами: господство/ подчинение/давление)
  2. challenge to smb (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами:угрозы/насмешка/донос)
  3. challenge to a fight (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами:список глаголов, требующих за собой предлог)
  4. to accept smb’s challenge (Глагольные словосочетания)
  5. to challenge a report (сочетаемость существительных:)
  1. Прил +: новый челлендж;
  2. Гл +: продолжить челлендж;
  3. Сущ +: день челленджа.

10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:

  1. acute, keen, sharp (knife, mind, sight):

acute mind;

keen sight;

sharp knife;

  1. abysmal, deep, profound (ignorance, river, sleep);

abysmal ignorance;

deep river;

profound sleep;

  1. unconditional, unqualified (success, surrender):

unconditional surrender;

unqualified success;

  1. diminutive, miniature, petite, petty, small, tiny (camera, house, speck, spite, suffix, woman):

diminutive suffix;

miniature camera/house;

petite woman;

petty spite;

small speck/camera/house;

tiny house/camera/speck;

  1. brisk, nimble, quick, swift (mind, revenge, train, walk):

brisk walk;

nimble mind;

quick train;

swift revenge.

11. Collocate deletion: One word in each group does not make a strong word partnership with the word on Capitals. Which one is Odd One Out?

1) BRIGHT idea green

smell

child day room

2) CLEAR

attitude

need instruction alternative day conscience

3) LIGHT traffic

work

day entertainment suitcase rain green lunch

4) NEW experience job

food

potatoes baby situation year

5) HIGH season price opinion spirits

house

time priority

6) MAIN point reason effect entrance

speed

road meal course

7) STRONG possibility doubt smell influence

views

coffee language

8) SERIOUS

advantage

situation relationship illness crime matter

  1. Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.
Sentence Meaning
The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon. The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon
Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores. Animals whose main diet is meat
A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods. deliberately avoid
After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country. full of incessant or frantic activity.
Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say. grasp mentally; understand.to perceive
The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him. to calm down someone
It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry. necessary
The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors. The dream about some achievements
In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.” The person who have a lot of power
After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request. to Agree with some request
He is devoid of human feelings. Someone have the lack of something
This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes. produce or provide
It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students. good relationship

Word combinations in Modern English Lexicology of the English language

Word combinations in Modern English Lexicology of the English language

�A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically,

�A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically, both global and articulated. 1. Word combination

�In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a

�In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. �The main function of a word combination is polinomination (it describes an object, phenomenon or action and its attributes and properties at the same time). 2.

� There are two types of word combinations (also known as set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed

� There are two types of word combinations (also known as set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, etc): � Free word combinations in which each component may enter different combinations � Set (phraseological) combinations consist of elements which are used only in combination with one another 3.

�Differences between free and set word combinations: SEMANTIC CRITERION �The meaning in phraseological units

�Differences between free and set word combinations: SEMANTIC CRITERION �The meaning in phraseological units has partially or fully shifted. The words have a transferred (metaphorical or metonymical) meaning. �cf: a wolf in sheep’s clothing – a man in cheap clothing 4.

STRUCTURAL CRITERION. � Phraseological units are characterized by stability of components: � It is

STRUCTURAL CRITERION. � Phraseological units are characterized by stability of components: � It is impossible to change the components of a phraseological unit; e. g. to have a bee in the bonnet (hat) � It is impossible to add new components; � It is impossible to change grammatical form of components, even if their form violates grammar rules: e. g. at (the) first sight, from head to foot (feet), to find faults with � However the degree of stability varies: a skeleton/skeletons in the cupboard, a (big) white elephant. � Other features ensuring stability are rhythm, alliteration, contrast, repetition, simile etc. � e. g. on and on, safe and sound, as busy as a bee � Free 5. word combinations allow any changes.

Classifications of phraseological units � According to thematic (etymological) classification, idioms are classified according

Classifications of phraseological units � According to thematic (etymological) classification, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. ◦ E. g. Word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Thus there may be singled out a group of “marine” phraseological units. � To be all at sea — to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I’m afraid I’m all at sea in this problem � To sink or swim — to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort. ) � In deep water — in trouble or danger. � In low water, on the rocks — in strained financial circumstances. 6.

Semantic classification � describes word combinations from the viewpoint of the shift in meaning

Semantic classification � describes word combinations from the viewpoint of the shift in meaning of words: � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are most idiomatic, the meaning of both words is fully transferred. � e. g. tit for tat, to skate on thin ice � Phraseological unities are motivated semantically, based on imagination. Usually one of the components has retained its meaning. � e. g. to fall ill, to fall in love, small talk � Phraseological combinations are less idiomatic, most motivated � e. g. as dead as mutton 7.

Structural classification takes into consideration the fact that phraseologisms are, in fact, equivalents of

Structural classification takes into consideration the fact that phraseologisms are, in fact, equivalents of words. Phraseological units can perform the same functions as words. So, set expressions are classified according to their function. � Verbal : to run for one’s life, to get the upper hand � Substantive: dog’s life, red tape � Adjectival: high and mighty, safe and sound � Adverbial: high and low � Equivalents of auxiliary parts of speech: by way of, as long as, Good God! � Stereotyped sentences: take your time! 8.

Stylistic classification �Set expressions, as well as words, may be stylistically neutral and stylistically

Stylistic classification �Set expressions, as well as words, may be stylistically neutral and stylistically marked. �e. g. it’s raining cats and dogs (bookish) �to do smb. brown (colloquial) 9.

Notions related to set expressions �A simile is a figure of speech that directly

Notions related to set expressions �A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» . �Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas metaphors compare two things directly. �e. g. as alike as two peas in a pod (identical or nearly so) �as blind as a bat (completely blind) 10.

�A cliché is a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech, very often overused to

�A cliché is a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech, very often overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty. �e. g. Love is blind. ◦ Put two and two together. 11.

�A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses

�A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. �If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism. 12.

�A collocation is sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would

�A collocation is sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e. g. �time flies �Times passes �the appointed time �Present time �Right time �Wrong time �Opening time �Closing time 13.

�A phrasal verb is a phrase (as take off or look down on) that

�A phrasal verb is a phrase (as take off or look down on) that combines a verb with a preposition or adverb or both and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different from the combined meanings of the individual words. 14.

Translation Tips � Free word combinations and collocations are usually translated by calque (word-for-word).

Translation Tips � Free word combinations and collocations are usually translated by calque (word-for-word). However, translating attributive word groups is challenging, because one and the same attributive word may be translated differently depending on the meaning of the defined head word. � E. g. public opinion – общественное мнение, jamoatchilik fikri � Public debt – государственный долг, davlat qarzlari � Public scandal – публичный скандал, ommaviy janajal � Sometimes more complicated transformations are needed: � E. g. working expectancy – ожидаемая продолжительность трудовой деятельности, ishchini kutilayotgan ishlash muddati 15.

� Phraseological unities are usually translated by one word or equivalent combinations: � e.

� Phraseological unities are usually translated by one word or equivalent combinations: � e. g. to take a chance – рисковать, imkoniyat berish � To take offence – обидеться, arazlamoq � To put an end to – положить конец, преодолеть, tugatish � To take into account – принимать во внимание, e’tiborga olish � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are translated by their equivalents or analogues or description. e. g. � whip-and-carrot policy – политика кнута и пряника, qamchi va sabzi siyosati (equivalent) � To beat about the bush – ходить вокруг да около, butani o’rab olish (analogue) � Carbon footprint — негативные экологические последствия какой-либо деятельности, faoliyatni salbiy ekologik natijalari (decription) 16.

Origin of set expressions � One of the words becomes archaic: kith and kin

Origin of set expressions � One of the words becomes archaic: kith and kin of the meanings of a word becomes archaic: to be in two minds � An expression may pass from professional use into common use: to hit below the belt (from boxing) � Part of a proverb may become isolated: the last straw (that was the last straw which broke the camel’s neck) � Literary sources: a Troyan horse; to be or not to be � Translation borrowings: to kill two birds with one stone (calque translation from French) � 17.

� � � � � What do we call word combinations in which the

� � � � � What do we call word combinations in which the components retain their main meaning, and can freely enter different combinations? What do we call word combinations in which the components typically have shifted meaning and are not freely chosen? What do we call a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» ? What do we call a trite or overused phrase or expression? What is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind? What do we call a familiar grouping of words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association? Which of the following underlined word combinations with the word “stand” is free and which one is fixed? a) The British government would not stand in the way of such a proposal. b) She was standing beside my bed staring down at me. 18. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

� Which of the following word combinations in bold are set phrases? 1) Where

� Which of the following word combinations in bold are set phrases? 1) Where do you think you lost your purse? 2) Don’t lose your temper when you talk to her. 3) Have a look at the reverse side of the coat. 4) The reverse side of the medal is that we’ll have to do it ourselves. 5) Keep the butter in the refrigerator. 6) Keep an eye on the child. 19. Case study

� � � 1) lost your purse — it is a free word combination,

� � � 1) lost your purse — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. lost you bag, found your purse etc. 2) lose your temper – it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the word ‘lose’ in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to become angry). 3) reverse side of the coat — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. reverse side of the dress 4) reverse side of the medal — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= other side of the matter) 5) Keep the butter — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. keep the cheese in the refrigerator etc. 6) Keep an eye — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to watch closely or carefully) 20. Key

ONE NINE TWO THREE FOUR(S) FIVE SIX(ES)S EVEN(S) TEN 1) 2) She crawled on

ONE NINE TWO THREE FOUR(S) FIVE SIX(ES)S EVEN(S) TEN 1) 2) She crawled on all _____ to the window = on her knees, feet and hands. He is at _____ and _____ = He is confused and doesn’t know what to do. 3) He puts _____ and _____ together. = He begins to draw conclusions about something 4) He looks out for number _____ = He only thinks about his interests. 5) «the _____ R’s. » = The basics of education 6) He has a _____ o’clock shadow. = A man hasn’t shaved for a day or two 7) Things that are very cheap and common are _____ a penny. 8) This four bedroom home, located in Country Club Estates, is completed and ready to move in. This home has «the whole _____ yards» in convenience. ’ (=all of it) 21. Fill in the blanks with proper numerals to make an idiom with the specified meaning.

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) fours sixes and sevens two and

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) fours sixes and sevens two and two one three five ten nine 22. Key

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