Choose the word that is not synonymous with the others

Иностранный язык

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241) Установите соответствие между частями речи:




242) Установите соответствие между частями речи: (вар 2)




243) Что является вторым причастием?




244) Что является сложным дополнением?




245) Что является формами герундия глагола to write?




246) Что является формами причастия глагола to do?




247) Что является формами причастия глагола to write?




248) It’s widely known that politeness is a key principle of forming patterns of business phone talks.





249) It’s is universally known that business letters are an inseparable part of business.




250) Which manager qualities indicate good communication skills?




251) Everybody knows that for manager’s presentation it is very important is to consider the audience to determine how best to achieve your objectives in the context of these people.





252) Сельскохозяйственная организация выращивает табак Во 2 квартале 2021 года выращено и собрано продукции на сумму 61023 тыс. руб., объемом 51800 кг. За этот же период со склада компании продано продукции на сумму 28320 тыс. руб. (без учета НДС), объемом 23600 кг. Кроме того, со склада списывалась продукция для собственного производства табачной продукции на сумму 18996 тыс. руб., объемом 15830 кг. (продажа собственной табачной продукции за данный период не проводилась). Определить сумму акциза, который должна начислить и уплатить компания за данный период.




253) Управленческий учет это:





254) Организация осуществила в течение месяца следующие виды расходов:
Расходы на оплату труда производственного персонала:
-на ед. продукции А = 3,2 т.р.
-на единицу продукции Б = 1,7 т.р.
Расходы на оплату труда управленческого персонала в размере 410 т.р.
По всем расходам на оплату труда начислены социальные платежи в размере 30%.
Расходы на основные материалы списанные на себестоимость продукции:
— на единицу продукции А = 13,4 т.р.
— единицу продукции Б = 4,7 т.р.
Начислены расходы на электроэнергию в размере 98 т.р.
Начислена амортизация по основным средствам в размере 27 т.р.
Выпуск и продажа продукции за месяц составил:
— продукции А в размере 110 ед.
— продукции Б в размере 170 ед.
Определить себестоимость единицы продукции «Б» при методе списания постоянных расходов методом: пропорционально оплате труда в составе переменных расходов (с округлением % до целых ед.).




255) If you need to phone later it is correct to say:




256) Choose ethically possible ways to sign a business letter:




257) Which is the most correct way to ask the caller’s name?




258) Прочитайте отрывок текста из рабочего учебника. Найдите переводы слов.
(1) Contract is an agreement between the parties involved that creates a binding obligation. (2) In general, contracts must be written and signed. (3) These are contracts involving the sale and transfer of real estate, and contracts to guarantee or answer for the miscarriage, debt, or default of another person. (4)A contract forms the basis of a transaction between the Buyers and the Sellers.





259) Choose the word that is not synonymous with the others: (вар 2)




260) Choose the odd word that is not directly connected with business and management: (вар 3)




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English Synonyms and AntonymsRate these synonyms:3.8 / 4 votes

  1. choose

    Prefer indicates a state of desire and approval; choose, an act of will. Prudence or generosity may lead one to choose what he does not prefer. Select implies a careful consideration of the reasons for preference and choice. Among objects so nearly alike that we have no reason to prefer any one to another we may simply choose the nearest, but we could not be said to select it. Aside from theology, elect is popularly confined to the political sense; as, a free people elect their own rulers. Cull, from the Latin colligere, commonly means to collect, as well as to select. In a garden we cull the choicest flowers.

    Synonyms:
    cull, elect, pick, pick out, prefer, select

    Antonyms:
    cast away, cast out, decline, disclaim, dismiss, leave, refuse, reject, repudiate, throw aside

    Preposition:
    Choose from or from among the number; choose out of the army; choose between (or betwixt) two; among many; choose for the purpose.

Complete Dictionary of Synonyms and AntonymsRate these synonyms:0.0 / 0 votes

  1. choose

    Synonyms:
    select, elect, prefer, appropriate, adopt, cull, pick out

    Antonyms:
    leave, dismiss, reject, refuse, disclaim, repudiate, ignore, decline

Princeton’s WordNetRate these synonyms:2.4 / 5 votes

  1. choose, take, select, pick outverb

    pick out, select, or choose from a number of alternatives

    «Take any one of these cards»; «Choose a good husband for your daughter»; «She selected a pair of shoes from among the dozen the salesgirl had shown her»

    Synonyms:
    take on, demand, rent, take in, distinguish, shoot, get, call for, exact, take, pack, bring, acquire, read, involve, make, lease, guide, engage, lead, hire, necessitate, select, have, occupy, strike, study, get hold of, train, use up, assume, admit, pick out, need, adopt, subscribe to, deal, take aim, spot, postulate, claim, ingest, hold, carry, contract, aim, tell apart, require, fill, film, prefer, charter, drive, make out, direct, discern, recognize, ask, subscribe, convey, submit, conduct, take up, opt, recognise, take away, consider, accept, learn, withdraw, consume, contain, look at, remove

  2. choose, prefer, optverb

    select as an alternative over another

    «I always choose the fish over the meat courses in this restaurant»; «She opted for the job on the East coast»

    Synonyms:
    take, select, prefer, opt, favor, favour, pick out

  3. chooseverb

    see fit or proper to act in a certain way; decide to act in a certain way

    «She chose not to attend classes and now she failed the exam»

    Synonyms:
    select, pick out, take, prefer, opt

Dictionary of English SynonymesRate these synonyms:0.0 / 0 votes

  1. chooseverb

    Synonyms:
    select, elect, prefer, cull, pick, pick out, single out, fix upon, pitch upon, catch at, make choice of

PPDB, the paraphrase databaseRate these paraphrases:0.0 / 0 votes

  1. List of paraphrases for «choose»:

    select, elect, choosing, pick, opt, choice, selecting, decide, press, click, selection, choices, chose, selected, chosen, chooses, point, picks

Suggested Resources

  1. Choose

    Choose vs. Chose — In this Grammar.com article you will learn the differences between the words Choose and Chose.

How to pronounce choose?

How to say choose in sign language?

How to use choose in a sentence?

  1. Phil Murphy:

    No student should have to needlessly choose between his or her identity playing sports.

  2. Graham Greene:

    If I had to choose between life in the Soviet Union and life in the U. S. A. , I would certainly choose the Soviet Union.

  3. Yolande Korkie:

    To choose to forgive those that caused Pierre’s death. What will it help to accuse? Will it bring Pierre back? We choose to let it go.

  4. George Osborne:

    It is right that we choose to invest in our cyber defenses even at a time when we must cut other budgets, the internet represents a critical axis of potential vulnerability.

  5. Andrew Lee:

    We have more then 20 services, in Indonesia…we will pick and choose the best playbook for Thailand and carefully curate that.


Translations for choose

From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary

  • kiesAfrikaans
  • اختارArabic
  • seçməkAzerbaijani
  • выбіра́ць, вы́брацьBelarusian
  • подби́рам, избирам, решавамBulgarian
  • নির্বাচন করাBengali
  • escollir, triar, elegirCatalan, Valencian
  • volit, zvolit, vyvolit, vybírat, rozhodnout se, zvolit si, vybratCzech
  • ethol, dewisWelsh
  • udvælge, kåre, vælge, foretrække, have lyst, finde for godtDanish
  • wählen, entscheiden, auswählenGerman
  • εκλέγω, διαλέγωGreek
  • elektiEsperanto
  • elegir, escogerSpanish
  • valimaEstonian
  • aukeratuBasque
  • گزیدن, برگزیدن, انتخاب کردنPersian
  • valita, [[päättää]] [[tehdä]]Finnish
  • choisir, élire, déciderFrench
  • roghnaighIrish
  • taghScottish Gaelic
  • elixir, escollerGalician
  • בחרHebrew
  • चुननाHindi
  • chwaziHaitian Creole
  • megválaszt, választ, kiválasztHungarian
  • ընտրելArmenian
  • pilih, memilihIndonesian
  • veljaIcelandic
  • decidere, scegliere, eleggere, selezionareItalian
  • 選ぶJapanese
  • ამორჩევაGeorgian
  • таңдауKazakh
  • 고르다, 선택하다Korean
  • тандооKyrgyz
  • lego, ēligo, dīligoLatin
  • ເລືອກLao
  • pasirinktiLithuanian
  • atlasīt, izvēlētiesLatvian
  • whiriMāori
  • и́збираMacedonian
  • сонгохMongolian
  • pilihMalay
  • talla’, ħatar, iddeċieda, għażelMaltese
  • ရွေးBurmese
  • velgeNorwegian
  • kiezen, uitkiezen, verkiezenDutch
  • wybierać, wybraćPolish
  • escolherPortuguese
  • akllayQuechua
  • vrea, prefera, alegeRomanian
  • вы́брать, взять, выбира́ть, реша́ть, реши́ть, избира́ть, избра́тьRussian
  • izabrati, odabrati, одлучити, одабрати, изабрати, odlučitiSerbo-Croatian
  • තෝරා ගන්නවාSinhala, Sinhalese
  • vyberať, vybraťSlovak
  • izvoliti, izbratiSlovene
  • zgjedhAlbanian
  • väljaSwedish
  • газиданTajik
  • เลือก, คัดเลือกThai
  • saýlamak, seçmekTurkmen
  • piliTagalog
  • seçmekTurkish
  • сайларгаTatar
  • ви́брати, вибира́тиUkrainian
  • چنناUrdu
  • tanlamoqUzbek
  • chọn, lựa chọn, kén chọnVietnamese
  • קלײַבן, אויסקלײַבןYiddish

Get even more translations for choose »

Translation

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  • — Select —
  • 简体中文 (Chinese — Simplified)
  • 繁體中文 (Chinese — Traditional)
  • Español (Spanish)
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  • 日本語 (Japanese)
  • Português (Portuguese)
  • Deutsch (German)
  • العربية (Arabic)
  • Français (French)
  • Русский (Russian)
  • ಕನ್ನಡ (Kannada)
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  • עברית (Hebrew)
  • Gaeilge (Irish)
  • Українська (Ukrainian)
  • اردو (Urdu)
  • Magyar (Hungarian)
  • मानक हिन्दी (Hindi)
  • Indonesia (Indonesian)
  • Italiano (Italian)
  • தமிழ் (Tamil)
  • Türkçe (Turkish)
  • తెలుగు (Telugu)
  • ภาษาไทย (Thai)
  • Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese)
  • Čeština (Czech)
  • Polski (Polish)
  • Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)
  • Românește (Romanian)
  • Nederlands (Dutch)
  • Ελληνικά (Greek)
  • Latinum (Latin)
  • Svenska (Swedish)
  • Dansk (Danish)
  • Suomi (Finnish)
  • فارسی (Persian)
  • ייִדיש (Yiddish)
  • հայերեն (Armenian)
  • Norsk (Norwegian)
  • English (English)

Citation

Use the citation below to add these synonyms to your bibliography:

Are we missing a good synonym for choose?

Synonymy relates to the topic of semantics, which concerns the study of meaning in language. The term synonymy originates from the Greek words sún and onoma, which mean with and name.

Synonymy in semantics

Synonymy in semantics refers to a word with the same (or nearly the same) meaning as another word.

Let’s see if you’ve grasped the concept of synonymy by finding two synonymous words in these sentences:

  1. Today’s weather is awful.
  2. Today’s weather is terrible.

The first sentence uses awful to describe the weather and the second uses terrible. Although both sentences use different words, they have the same meaning: bad. In other words, awful and terrible are synonyms of bad.

Important note: Be careful of the slight differences between the synonyms. Not every synonymous word fits in all situations, eg small isn’t exactly the same as tiny. You have to consider some factors, including the context, the relationship between words, register, and regional variation, among others. Take a look at the ‘types of synonymy’ section for more details.

To test whether two words are synonyms (or synonymous), we can use a substitution method: if one word can be replaced by another without changing the meaning/sense of the sentence, the two words are synonyms. The opposite of synonymy is antonymy. Synonymy can be found across all parts of speech: in nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc.

A ≈ B

Synonym examples

Here are some examples of synonyms:

  • big-large

  • small — little

  • easy — effortless

  • difficult — hard

Let’s put the synonyms into a sentence and use the substitution method:

1a. You have a big house.

1b. You have a large house.

By substituting big with large, we can keep the sentence’s meaning (the description of the house) in a similar degree/sense as the original sentence.

2a. He had a difficult decision to make.

2b. He had a hard decision to make.

The same as before, the substitution of difficult with hard does not change the sentence’s meaning (the description of the decision).

Synonymy in literature

Synonymy is one of the literary devices in which a word is replaced with another word with a similar meaning, to avoid repetition.

Here are some examples of synonymy in literature:

If there’s just one kind of folks, why can’t they get along with each other? If they’re all alike, why do they go out of their way to despise each other? Scout, I think I’m beginning to understand something. I think I’m beginning to understand why Boo Radley’s stayed shut up in the house all this time. It’s because he wants to stay inside.

Harper Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird, 1960.

Instead of repeating the word one kind, Lee chooses its synonym: alike, to relay a similar meaning to ‘very similar’. The same thing happens in the case of stayed shut up in the house and stay inside. Using synonymy, Lee enriches the prose by avoiding repetition while keeping the meaning similar in both cases.

For thee I watch, whilst thou dost wake elsewhere.

— William Shakespeare, Sonnet 61, 1609.

Wake is a synonym of watch. Here, wake means ‘to stay awake to watch or tend’ (Oxford English Dictionary). Notice the slightly richer sense of see in watch compared to wake, yet the two words carry a similar meaning. By adopting synonymy, Shakespeare enhances the quality of the words he uses.

I love your daughter fondly, dearly, disinterestedly, devotedly. If ever there were love in the world, I love her.

Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities, 1859.

Fondly and devotedly are synonyms that describe ‘a way to show great love for somebody/something’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionary). Using two different words with a similar meaning, Dickens describes how strong the character’s feelings are (how I love your daughter) without repeating the word.

Types of synonyms

Now that we’ve looked at the concept, let’s examine the two types of synonymy:

  1. Absolute synonyms

  2. Partial synonyms

Absolute synonyms

With absolute synonyms, the meaning and function of the synonymous words are exactly the same. If you have a pair of absolutely synonymous words, you can substitute the words in every possible context (semantic, grammatical, sociolinguistic, etc.) with its synonym. This condition is very rare because, usually, two words that refer to the same meaning/object can’t co-exist. An example of an absolute synonym is airport and aerodrome. The former is what we commonly use nowadays, whereas the latter is an old-fashioned word.

Partial synonyms

Partial synonyms, on the other hand, occur when words have very closely related meanings. The meanings are not exactly the same, only partially, but close enough to relay the same message. Partial synonyms can differ in their collocation, register, and regional/social variation.

Have a look at these examples of partial synonyms:

1. We have a big problem. Although gigantic is synonymous with big, the word combination of gigantic problem (1c) doesn’t sound natural. This is what’s called a collocation (a pairing of words with a high level of frequency).
a. We have a large problem.
b. We have a huge problem.
c. We have a gigantic problem.
2a. The tickets can only be bought online. Generally, buy and purchase mean ‘to obtain something by paying money for it’ (Oxford Learner’s Dictionary). However, the two words differ in their register. Buy is considered a general term, whereas purchase is often used in a more formal context.
2 B. The tickets can only be purchased online.
3a. It’s been a very chilly autumn this year.

Both autumn and fall mean ‘the season of the year between summer and winter.’

But, autumn is Commonly used in British English, while fall is used in American English. They differ in regional/social variety.

3b. It’s been a very chilly fall this year.

Synonymy and homonymy — what’s the difference?

Synonymous words are words that carry similar meanings (meaning 1 is similar to meaning 2 and meaning 3). Homonymous words (homonymy) are words that are pronounced the same or spelt the same (or both), but their meanings are dissimilar.

Important to note: Homonym is a broader term for homophone (words that sound the same but have different meanings) and homograph (words that are spelt the same but have different meanings).Synonymy, Synonymy vs Homonymy, StudySmarter Synonyms have similar meanings but homonyms have different meanings.

Synonymy and polysemy — what’s the difference?

When a set of different words carries a similar meaning it is called synonymy. When a single word has several meanings (word form 1 has meaning 1 and meaning 2), it is called polysemy.

Synonymy — similar meanings: wing — extension & section.

  • They are building a new wing for the maternity department.
  • They are building a new extension for the maternity department.

Even though the word wing is replaced with extension, we still get the same information about ‘a new section of the hospital is currently being constructed and it is for the maternity department’. The meaning of extension isn’t exactly the same as wing , but similar.

  • My room is on the west wing.
  • My room is on the west section (of the building).

The same explanation can also be found here. We still get the same information about where my room is: on the west side of the building.

Polysemy — multiple meanings: wing — animal parts for flying & a section of a building.

  • They are building a new wing for the maternity department.

The meaning of wing in this sentence refers to ‘a section of building’ and not ‘animal parts for flying’.

  • The bird’s wing is broken.

Here, the meaning of wing is about the ‘animal parts for flying’ and not ‘a section of a building’.

Synonymy vs. Polysemy

  • In synonymy, you can substitute a word with its similar meaning and the sense/meaning of the sentence doesn’t change. A is similar to B .
  • Synonyms are usually used as a means of avoiding word repetition. However, be careful of the slightly different meanings of synonymous words. Always be mindful of the context and valency of the sentence.
  • Polysemy isn’t about word substitution. Because a single polysemic word has many meanings (A means B and C) , it can cause ambiguity. It is often used for wordplay or for creating “hidden” meanings.

Synonymy — Key takeaways

  • Synonymy is a linguistic term for words with similar meanings.
  • If you replace one word with its synonym, the meaning/sense of the sentence doesn’t change. You can test synonymy by using the substitution method.
  • There are two types of synonymy: Absolute synonyms, when the meaning and function of the words is exactly the same, and partial synonyms, when the meaning and function of the words is only partially the same. This may depend on the collocation, register, and regional/social variety of the words.
  • Synonymy features words with similar meanings, while homonymy has words with different meaning but have the same pronunciation or spelling or both.
  • Synonymy involves words with similar meanings, while polysemy is words with multiple meanings did create wordplay.

Synonymy in English

Synonymy is a lexical relation that means sameness of meaning. Synonyms are similar, but not identical. Examples of some English synonyms are:

car and automobile smart and intelligent
baby and infant student and pupil
pretty and attractive sick and ill
funny and humorous died and expired

Synonyms can be nouns, adverbs or adjectives, as long as both members of the pair are of the same part of speech. Traditionally, synonymy can only hold between words, and, more precisely, between words belonging to the same part of speech; for example: ‘enormous’ = ‘huge’; ‘gaze’ = ‘stare’. This is the classic form of synonymy, covered by, for instance, synonym dictionaries.

Given the complexity of meaning, a person searching for an alternative word must be sure that the synonym chosen is accurate and precise. In its strict sense, a synonym is a word with a meaning identical or very similar to that of another word. In fact, it is often said that there is no such thing as an absolute synonym for any word, that is, a form that is identical in every aspect of meaning so that the two can be applied interchangeably. According to this extreme view, the only true synonyms are terms having precisely the same denotation, connotation, and range of applicability. As it turns out, these so-called true synonyms are frequently technical terms and almost always concrete words coming from linguistically disparate sources. Good examples of such pairs are celiac (from Greek) and abdominal (from Latin); and car (from Latin) and automobile (from French). These meet the criteria for true synonymy: they have precisely the same denotations, connotations, and range of applicability, and they are used in identical contexts.

This view of synonymy is far too restrictive, however. I think that synonymous terms are those having nearly identical denotations. English is rich in such words. Speakers very often have a choice from among a set of words of differing origin but the same denotation. One may go to the shore (from Old English), the coast (from Latin), or the littoral (from Latin). One can refer to the sense of hearing (from Old English) or to the acoustic (from Greek), auditory (from Latin), aural (from Latin), or auricular (from Latin) sense. One can make clothing from cloth (from Old English), fabric (from Latin), material (from Latin), or textiles (from Latin). The reason for choosing one of these words over another is frequently stylistic: one may prefer a simpler or a more complex word; one may prefer a more formal or a less formal term. However, the fact that these words share a denotation makes them synonymous and available as substitutes for words one has in mind so that one can be more precise, express oneself more colorfully, or avoid repetition.

Lyons distinguishes between two kinds of synonymy, i.e. what he calls complete and absolute synonymy. He says that complete synonymy is rare, and absolute synonymy hardly exists. If absolute synonymy exists at all, it is merely in very special contexts such as scientific terms (e.g. almonds and tonsils). But what happens when we have two absolute synonyms is that specialists or speakers in general tend to use one of the two synonymous words and agree that the chosen word should be always used to refer to the concept they are describing.

What about absolute synonymy, that is, according to Cruse where all contextual relations between the two terms are identical. Roughly speaking this means that in all linguistic contexts, the two terms are interchangeable without any difference in meaning. Cruse suggests the normality test as a way of determining the absence of absolute synonymy. This test shows that one of the two terms is normal in a given context, and the other less normal.

(1) He told me the match starts at 8.00 (+ normal)

(2) He told me the match commences at 8.00 (- normal)

If we add (3), however, and compare it with (1) it is difficult to attribute greater normality to one or the other:

(3) He told me the match begins at 8.00

Cruse rules out the use of contexts where one term is odd in syntactic functions, suggesting the context should provide a level playing field in order to ascertain normality. If this is the case, one would have to go a long way to find two contexts where begin and start could be seen to be non-absolute synonyms. Furthermore Cruse also rules out the use of ‘irrelevant senses’ of a word form.

(4) Arthur’s most recent car is an old one (+)

(5) Arthur’s most recent car is a former one (-)

(6) He had more responsibility in his old job

(7) He had more responsibility in his former job.

Cruse’s normality test works well if we wish to show with the least amount of contextual investigation that two words are not absolute synonyms. It is more difficult to show that two words are in fact absolute synonyms.

Palmer differentiates between synonyms in five ways. First, some synonyms belong to different dialects of the language. For instance, the word fall is used in the United States and autumn is used in Britain. Second, some synonyms are used in different styles according to the degree of formality; colloquial, formal. For instance, gentleman (formal), man, chap. Thirdly, some words differ only in their emotive or evaluative values but their cognitive meaning is the same. For instance, hide, conceal. Fourthly, some word are subject to collocational restraints, i.e. they occur only with specific words. For instance, rancid occurs with butter, addled with eggs. Fifthly, the meanings of some words overlap. For instance, mature, adult, ripe. If we take each of these words we will have a larger set of synonyms. Palmer suggests a test for synonymy by substituting one word for another. Because absolute synonyms are mutually interchangeable in all contexts, that is why absolute synonyms are very rare in language. Another way to test synonymy is using antonyms. For instance, superficial is the opposite of deep and profound, while shallow is the opposite of deep only.

When we use language for the purpose of communication, we come to perceive any expression as a tool more or less suitable for our purposes, we come to see it as possessing a certain value.

Перевод

Синонимия в английском языке

Синонимия – это лексические отношения между словами, схожими по смыслу. Синонимы схожи, но не идентичны. Вот примеры некоторых английских синонимов:

car и automobile smart и intelligent
baby и infant student и pupil
pretty и attractive sick и ill
funny и humorous died и expired

Синонимами могут быть существительные, прилагательные или наречия, оба члена пары относятся к одной и той же части речи. Традиционно синонимия имеет место только между словами, а, точнее, между словами, принадлежащих к той же части речи, например: ‘ enormous’ = ‘ huge’; ‘ gaze’ = ‘ stare’. Это классическая форма синонимии, предлагаемая, например, в словарях синонимов.

Учитывая сложность смысла, человек, ищущий альтернативные слова, должен быть уверен, что выбранный синоним является точным. В строгом смысле, синонимы — слова со значением, идентичным или очень похожим на значение другого слова. На самом деле, часто говорят, что не существует такой вещи, как абсолютные синонимы, то есть форм, которые идентичны в каждом аспекте своего значения, которые могут быть взаимозаменяемыми. В соответствии с этим существует крайняя точка зрения о том, что настоящие синонимы — члены, имеющие точно такую же денотацию, коннотацию и область применения. Как выяснилось, эти так называемые истинные синонимы — часто технические термины и почти всегда конкретные слова, пришедшие из лингвистически разнородных источников. Хорошими примерами таких пар являются celiac (от греческого) и abdominal (от латинского); car (от латинского) и automobile (от французского). Эти слова отвечают критериям истинных синонимов: у них точно такие же денотация, коннотация и область применения, и они используются в одинаковых контекстах.

Однако эта точка зрения на синонимию является слишком ограниченной. Я думаю, что синонимами являются те слова, которые имеют почти идентичную денотацию. Английский богат такими словами. Выступающие очень часто имеют выбор из набора слов различного происхождения, но с той же самой денотацией. Можно идти to the shore (from Old English), the coast (from Latin), or the littoral (from Latin). Можно ссылаться to the sense of hearing (from Old English) or to the acoustic (from Greek), auditory (from Latin), aural (from Latin), or auricular (from Latin) sense. Можно сделать одежду from cloth (from Old English), fabric (from Latin), material (from Latin), or textiles (from Latin). Основанием для выбора одного из этих слов часто служит их стилистика: один может предпочесть более простое или более сложное слово; другой может предпочесть более формальные или менее формальные слова. Однако тот факт, что эти слова различаются денотацией делает их синонимами, и они доступны как заменители слов (имеется в виду то, что можно быть более точным, выразиться более красочно или избежать повторения).

Лайонс различает два вида синонимии: полная и абсолютная синонимия. Он говорит, что полные синонимы редки, а абсолютные синонимы вряд ли существуют. Если абсолютные синонимы вообще существуют, то только в особых ситуациях, таких, как научные термины (например, almonds и tonsils). Но что происходит, когда у нас есть две абсолютные синонимы, что специалисты или выступающие в целом, как правило, используют одно из двух синонимичных слов и согласитесь, что выбранное слово должно всегда использоваться для обозначения понятия, которое оно описывает.

Что касается абсолютных синонимов, то, в соответствии с Крузом, это слова, где все контекстуальные отношения идентичны. Грубо говоря, это означает, что во всех языковых контекстах эти два термина являются взаимозаменяемыми без разницы в значении. Круз предполагает тест как способ определения отсутствия абсолютных синонимов. Этот тест показывает, что одно из двух слов нормально в данном контексте, и другое менее нормально.

(1) He told me the match starts at 8.00 (+ normal)

(2) He told me the match commences at 8.00 (- normal)

Однако если мы добавим (3), и сравним его с (1), то трудно придать большую нормальность употребления одному или другому:

(3) He told me the match begins at 8.00

Круз исключает использование контекстов, где одно слово необычно по своим синтаксическим функциям; контекст должен обеспечивать равные условия для того, чтобы выяснить нормальность. Если бы это было так, то нужно было бы пройти долгий путь, чтобы найти два контекста, где begin и star tможно было бы рассматривать как неабсолютные синонимы. Кроме того Круз также исключает необходимость использования форм слова со «значением чувств».

(4) Arthur’s most recent car is an old one (+)

(5) Arthur’s most recent car is a former one (-)

(6) He had more responsibility in his old job

(7) He had more responsibility in his former job.

Тест нормальности Круза работает хорошо, если мы хотим показать на наименьшем количестве контекстов, что два слова не являются абсолютными синонимами. Труднее было бы показать, что два слова на самом деле абсолютные синонимы.

Палмер проводит различие между синонимами пятью способами. Во-первых, некоторые синонимы принадлежат к разным диалектам языка. Например, слово fall используется в Соединенных Штатах, а autumn в Великобритании. Во-вторых, некоторые синонимы используются в разных стилях в зависимости от степени формальности; разговорный, формальный. Например, gentleman (формальный), man, chap. В-третьих, некоторые слова отличаются только по своему эмоциональному или оценочному значению, но их когнитивный смысл тот же. Например, hide, conceal. В-четвертых, некоторые слова могут быть коллокационно ограниченны, то есть они сочетаются только с определенными словами. Например, rancid сочетается с butter, addled с eggs. В-пятых, значения некоторых слов перекрываются. Например, mature, adult, ripe. Если взять каждое из этих слов, мы будем иметь больший набор синонимов. Палмер предлагает тест на синонимию при замене одного слова другим. Поскольку абсолютные синонимы взаимозаменяемы во всех контекстах, то они очень редки в языке. Еще один способ тестирования синонимии — использование антонимы. Например, superficial является противоположностью deep и profound, в то время как shallow является противоположностью только deep.

Когда мы используем язык в целях коммуникации, мы приходим к восприятию его как инструмента, более или менее подходящего для наших целей.

Аннотация к статье «Synonymy in English»

Synonymy is a lexical relation that means sameness of meaning. Synonyms are similar, but not identical.

Lyons distinguishes between two kinds of synonymy, i.e. what he calls complete and absolute synonymy. He says that complete synonymy is rare, and absolute synonymy hardly exists. If absolute synonymy exists at all, it is merely in very special contexts such as scientific terms (e.g. almonds and tonsils).

What about absolute synonymy, that is, according to Cruse where all contextual relations between the two terms are identical. Roughly speaking this means that in all linguistic contexts, the two terms are interchangeable without any difference in meaning.

Palmer differentiates between synonyms in five ways. First, some synonyms belong to different dialects of the language. For instance, the word fall is used in the United States and autumn is used in Britain. Second, some synonyms are used in different styles according to the degree of formality; colloquial, formal. For instance, gentleman (formal), man, chap. Thirdly, some words differ only in their emotive or evaluative values but their cognitive meaning is the same. For instance, hide, conceal. Fourthly, some word are subject to collocational restraints, i.e. they occur only with specific words. For instance, rancid occurs with butter, addled with eggs. Fifthly, the meanings of some words overlap. For instance, mature, adult, ripe. If we take each of these words we will have a larger set of synonyms. Palmer suggests a test for synonymy by substituting one word for another. Because absolute synonyms are mutually interchangeable in all contexts, that is why absolute synonyms are very rare in language. Another way to test synonymy is using antonyms. For instance, superficial is the opposite of deep and profound, while shallow is the opposite of deep only.

Перевод

Синонимия в английском языке

Синонимия – это лексические отношения между словами, схожими по смыслу. Синонимы схожи, но не идентичны.

Лайонс различает два вида синонимии: полная и абсолютная синонимия. Он говорит, что полные синонимы редки, а абсолютные синонимы вряд ли существуют. Если абсолютные синонимы вообще существуют, то только в особых ситуациях, таких, как научные термины (например, almonds и tonsils).

Что касается абсолютных синонимов, то, в соответствии с Крузом, это слова, где все контекстуальные отношения идентичны. Грубо говоря, это означает, что во всех языковых контекстах эти два термина являются взаимозаменяемыми без разницы в значении.

Палмер проводит различие между синонимами пятью способами. Во-первых, некоторые синонимы принадлежат к разным диалектам языка. Например, слово fall используется в Соединенных Штатах, а autumn в Великобритании. Во-вторых, некоторые синонимы используются в разных стилях в зависимости от степени формальности; разговорный, формальный. Например, gentleman (формальный), man, chap. В-третьих, некоторые слова отличаются только по своему эмоциональному или оценочному значению, но их когнитивный смысл тот же. Например, hide, conceal. В-четвертых, некоторые слова могут быть коллокационно ограниченны, то есть они сочетаются только с определенными словами. Например, rancid сочетается с butter, addled с eggs. В-пятых, значения некоторых слов перекрываются. Например, mature, adult, ripe. Если взять каждое из этих слов, мы будем иметь больший набор синонимов. Палмер предлагает тест на синонимию при замене одного слова другим. Поскольку абсолютные синонимы взаимозаменяемы во всех контекстах, то они очень редки в языке. Еще один способ тестирования синонимии — использование антонимы. Например, superficial является противоположностью deep и profound, в то время как shallow является противоположностью только deep.

Bibliographical References

Cruse, D. A. (1986), Lexical Semantics, Cambridge University Press.

Carnap, R. (1956), Meaning and Necessity (Second edition) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lyons, J. (1981), Language and Linguistics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Palmer, F. R. (1981), Semantics, (Second edition) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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