Central meaning of the word

Слайд 1Semantics
Semantics (semasiology) is a branch of lexicology that is devoted to

the study of word meaning.
the semantics of a word = the meaning of a word

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Слайд 2Meaning
a component of the word through which a concept is communicated,

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Слайд 3Types of meaning
Grammatical meaning: tables, students, houses, jokes — the grammatical

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Слайд 4Types of meaning
Lexical meaning is identical in all the forms of

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Слайд 5The components of meaning
the denotative component (denotation)
the connotative component (connotation)

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Слайд 6The denotative component of meaning (denotation)
is the principal part of meaning

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Слайд 7The connotative component of meaning (connotation)
is what the word implies in

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Слайд 8The connotative component
lonely: unhappy (emotive connotation)
notorious: about something bad (evaluative connotation,

negative)
celebrated: about something good (evaluative connotation, positive)
to adore: deep feeling (expressive connotation)
to glare: steadily (connotation of duration) + in angry, fierce way (emotive connotation)
to glance: briefly (connotation of duration)

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Слайд 9Denotative and connotative components
Often a word’s connotation is fully explained in

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Слайд 10Semantic Transfer
The process of development of a new meaning (or a

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Слайд 11Metaphor
Metaphor is a type of transference based on the similarity of

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Слайд 12Metonymy
is based on the contiguity (смежность) of the objects, qualities or

phenomena denoted by the words.
Types of metonymy:
The name of the place — its inhabitants: school
Quality — the subject of this quality: beauty Material — the product made of this material: bronze, clay, silver
Animal – the meat of this animal: fowl, turkey Action – the subject of the action: safeguard, support

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Слайд 13
Results of semantic change

Change of the denotative component:
broadening (generalization) of meaning:

bird, pipe
narrowing (specialization) of meaning: hound, girl
Change of the connotative component:
Elevation of meaning (the improvement of the connotative component of meaning): minister, knight
Degeneration of meaning (the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive charge): boor, silly

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Слайд 14
Polysemy

Polysemy is the ability of a word to possess several meanings.

E.g. bright: ‘shining’; ‘intelligent’.
A word having several meanings is called polysemantic.
Words having only one meaning are called monosemantic (morpheme, antibiotics).

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Слайд 15Lexico-semantic variant (A. I. Smirnitsky)
LSV is a two-sided unit, the material side

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Слайд 16The semantic centre of the word
E.g. dull:
Boring – the deficiency in

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Слайд 17Diachronic perspective of polysemy
If polysemy is viewed diachronically it is understood

as the development of the semantic structure of the word.
Types of meaning:
the primary meaning
the secondary meaning

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Слайд 18The primary meaning
e.g. table:
a piece of furniture;
people seating at

a table;
a meal;
a list of figures arranged in an ordered way (таблица);
a flat slab of stone or wood (плита)

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Слайд 19The synchronic perspective of polysemy
Synchronically polysemy is understood as the coexistence

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Слайд 20
The central (basic) meaning

The central meaning occurs in different contexts, possesses

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Слайд 21
Meaning and context

The actual meaning of a polysemantic word is revealed

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Слайд 22Linguistic contexts
lexical: the groups of lexical items are combined with

the polysemantic word under consideration.
E.g. heavy: ‘of great weight’ (heavy load, table); ‘abundant, striking, falling with force’ (heavy rain, storm, snow, wind); ‘the larger kind of smth’ (heavy industry, artillery, arms )
grammatical: the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word.
E.g. to make ‘to force, to induce’: to make + prn. + verb (to make smb. laugh, work, sit); ‘to become’: to make + adj. + noun (to make a good wife, a good teacher)

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Слайд 23Extra-linguistic context
The meaning of a word is ultimately determined by the

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WORD-MEANING AND SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF WORDS

1. Word-Meaning and Motivation.

2. Causes, Nature and Results of Semantic Change of Meaning.

3. Polysemy. Diachronic and Synchronic Approaches to Polysemy.

4. Polysemy and Context. Types of Context.

5. Homonymy. Classification of Homonyms.

Key words:motivation, semantic changes, ellipsis, fixed context, metaphor, metonymy, amelioration, deterioration, extension, specialization, pejoration, hyperbole, litotes, euphemism, polysemy, meaning, usage, lexico-semantic variant, semantic center, denotational component, connotational component, polysemantic word, monosemantic word, primary meaning, secondary meaning, diachronic approach, synchronical polysemy, central or basic meaning, marginal or minor meaning, context, homonyms, homophones, homographs

TASKS

1. Analyze the meanings of the given words. State what common associations, given by the graphic/sound-clusters sp-, -ash and gl- unite these words.

Sprinkle (to shake small amounts of a liquid over the surface of something), spray (to send liquid through the air in tiny drops either by the wind or some instrument), splash (to wet or soil by dashing masses or particles of water), spit (send liquid out from the mouth), spatter (to scatter drops of a liquid on a surface), spilt (to accidentally pour a liquid out of its container), spurt (if a liquid spurts from smth., it comes out in a sudden strong flow).

Smash (break violently into small pieces), dash (move or be moved violently), crash (strike suddenly violently and noisily), bash (to hit hard and violently), gash (a long deep cut or wound), slash (to move in a violent way that causes a lot of damage), trash (to criticize in a very strong way).

Glamour (a special quality that makes a person, place, or situation seem very exciting, attractive, or fashionable), gleam (a bright light reflected from something), glisten (to shine and look wet or oily), glossy (shiny in an attractive way), glint (to shine with quick flashes of light), glow (to shine with a soft light), glimmer (a soft weak light that is not steady).

2. Analyze the meanings of the italicized words. Group the words according to their type of motivation: a) words morphologically motivated; b) words semantically motivated.

Driver – someone who drives a vehicle, especially as his/her job; careless – not taking enough care; leg – the part of a piece of furniture such as a table or chair that supports it and raises it off the floor; horse – a piece of equipment shaped like a large box that is used in gymnastics; singlehood – the state of being single rather than married; wall – emotions or behaviour that prevent people from feeling close to each other; hand-made – made by hand, not machine; piggish – selfish; blue-eyed – having blue eyes; sound bite – a short comment by a politician or another famous person that is taken from a longer conversation or speech and broadcast alone because it is especially interesting or effective; leaflet – a small, often folded piece of printed paper, often advertising something, usually given free to people; streamlet – a small stream (a natural flow of water).

3. Define the kind of association involved in the semantic change.

Model: glass (a transparent solid substance used for making windows, bottles, etc.) – a glass (a container used for drinking, made of glass)

The kind of association involved in the semantic change in the words glass – a glass is known as metonymy or the contiguity of meaning.

1) the foot of a person – the foot of a mountain; 2) jean (heavy twilled cotton cloth, esp. denim) – jeans (trousers made of denim); 3) Matisse (proper name) – a Mattisse (a painting); 4) the wing of a bird – the wing of a building; 5) the key to a door – the key to a mystery; 6) copper (metal) – copper (coin); 7) the heart of a man – the heart of a city; crown (a circular ornamental headdress worn by a monarch) – crown (monarchy); 9) a whip (a lash used to urge horses on) – a whip (an official in the British Parliament to see that members are present at debates);

10) China (a country) – china (dishes made of porcelain).

4. Analyze the meanings of the italicized words. Identify the result of changes of the denotational aspect of lexical meaning in the given words.

Model: loan: ‘a gift from a superior; a thing borrowed’ – ‘a sum of money which is borrowed, often from a bank, and has to be paid back, usually together with an additional amount of money that you have to pay as a charge for borrowing’

The result of the change of the denotational aspect of lexical meaning of the word loan is that the word became more specialized in meaning (restriction of meaning, specialization).

1) camp: „a place where troops are lodged in tents‟ – „a place where people live in tents or hunts‟; 2) girl: „a small child of either sex‟ – „a small child of the female sex‟; 3) bird: „a young bird‟ – „a creature with wings and feathers which can usually fly in the air‟; 4) arrive: „reach the shore after a voyage‟ – „reach a place at the end of a journey or a stage in a journey‟; 5) deer: „any quadruped (четверонога тварина)‟ –

„a hoofed grazing or browsing animal, with branched bony antlers that are shed annually and typically borne only by the male‟; 6) rug: „rough woolen stuff‟ – „a small carpet‟; 7) barn: „a place for keeping barley‟ – „a large farm building used for storing grain, hay, or straw or for housing livestock‟; glide: „to move gently and smoothly‟ – „fly with no engine‟; 9) room: „space‟ – „a part or division of a building

enclosed by walls, floor, and ceiling‟; 10) fly: „move with wings‟ – „to move through the air or in the outer space‟; 11) artist: „master of the liberal arts (гуманітарні науки)‟ – „a person who produces paintings or drawings as a profession or hobby‟;

12) champion: „a fightingman‟ – „a person who has defeated or surpassed all rivals in

a competition, especially a sporting contest‟; 13) campaign: „army‟s operations in the

field‟– „a connected set of actions intended to obtain a particular result, in military

operations, in politics and business‟.

5. Analyze the meanings of the italicized words. Identify the result of the changes of the connotational aspect of lexical meaning in the given words.

Model: villain: ‘a feudal serf, peasant cultivator in subjection to a lord’ –‘a person guilty or capable of a crime or wickedness’

The result of the change of the connotational aspect of lexical meaning of the word villain is that the word acquired a derogatory emotive charge (deterioration of meaning).

1) cunning: „possessing erudition or skill‟ – „clever in deceiving‟; 2) knight:

„manservant‟ – „noble courageous man‟; 3) fond: „foolish, infatuated‟ – „loving,

affectionate‟; 4) gang: „a group of people going together‟ – „an organized group of

criminals‟;5) marshal: „manservant attendinghorses‟ – „an officer of the highest

rank in the armed forces‟; 6) coarse: „ordinary, common‟ – „rude or vulgar‟;

7) minister: „a servant‟ – „a head of a government department‟; enthusiasm: „a

propheticor poetic frenzy‟ – „intense and eager enjoyment, interest, or approval‟;

9) violent: „havinga marked or powerful effect‟ – „using or involving physical force

intended to hurt, damage, or kill someone or something‟; 10) gossip: „a godparent, a

person related to one in God‟ – „the one who talks scandal; tells slanderous stories

about other people‟.

6. Read the sentences in which the polysemantic word simple is used. Give all the lexico-semantic variants constituting the semantic structure of this word. Check yourself by a dictionary.

1. The book tries to give simple explanations of some very complex scientific ideas. 2. Sally likes clothes that are simple but elegant. 3. The simple fact is that he wants a divorce. 4. Archaeologists found several simple tools at the site. A knife is a simple tool. 5. Her grandparents were simple people who never had much money. I‟m just a simple farmer. 6. You may be joking but she‟s simple enough to believe you.

7. I‟m afraid old Jack is a bit simple.

7. Analyze the meanings of the given polysemantic words taken from the Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. These meanings are considered primary and central in Middle English. What are their basic (or central) meanings from the point of view of the present-day language?

Model: pension – ‘fixed or regular payment, spec. out of the revenues of a benefice’ (XIV c.)

In modern English the central meaning of the word is ‘a regular payment made by the state to someone who can no longer earn money by working’. Thus, in the present-day language the primary meaning of the word pension remains central.

1) likely – „probable‟ (XIII c.); 2) revolution – „moving of a celestial body in an orbit‟ (XIV c.); 3) to perish – „come to a violent or untimely end, cease to exist‟ (XIII c.); 4) challenge – „accusation‟ (XIII c.); 5) single – „unaccompanied, unmarried; individual; not double‟ (XIV c.); 6) to betray – „to give up treacherously‟ (XIII c.).

8. Classify the given words into: 1) homonyms proper; 2) homophones;

3) homographs. Give meanings of these words.

Made (adj) – maid (n); row (n) – row (n); week (n) – weak (adj); seal (n) – seal

(n); tear (v) – tear (n); bread (n) – bred (adj); band (n) – band (n); sum (n) – some

(pron); fall (n) – fall (v); wind (n) – wind (v); base (n) – base (v); desert (v) – desert

(n); hare (n) – hair (n); sewer (n) – sewer (n); corn (n) – corn (n).

9. Fill in the blanks choosing the right word.

1. Out of… out of mind (cite, site, sight). 2. Do not look a gift… in the mouth (horse, hoarse). 3. It never rains, but it… (pours, paws). 4. No… without sweat (sweet, suite). 5. Do not run with the… and hunt with the hounds (hair, hare). 6. All is… in love and war (fare, fair). 7. Fame is chiefly a matter of… at the right moment (die, dye). 8. When two people ride the…, one must ride behind (hoarse, horse).