Capitals of the word list

I am using list[0][0] to find the first letter of the first word in a list. But i have no idea how to capitalize it. Any help is appreciated!

Mazdak

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asked Mar 29, 2015 at 20:12

It’s actually much simpler than what you think.
Follow this code and capitalize ALL or SOME the words that’s in your list.

    singers = ['johnny rotten', 'eddie vedder', 'kurt kobain', 'chris cornell', 'micheal phillip jagger']
    singers = [singer.capitalize() for singer in singers]
    print(singers)

   #instead of capitalize use title() to have each word start with capital letter

Output:

Johnny rotten, Eddie vedder, Kurt kobain, Chris cornell, Micheal phillips jagger

The names will now be saved in your list in this manner for future use. Use .title() instead of .capitalize() to capitalize every word.

MendelG

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answered Oct 30, 2017 at 23:47

You can use str.capitalize() to capitalise each string. If you have any other uppercase letters in the string they will be lowered which may or may not be relevant.

If you want every letter uppercase use str.upper()

In [26]: "foo bar".capitalize() # first letter 
Out[26]: 'Foo bar'
In [30]: "foo Bar".capitalize() 
Out[30]: 'Foo bar'    
In [27]: "foo".upper() # all letters
Out[27]: 'FOO'

answered Mar 29, 2015 at 20:15

You can use the title method of string class which capitalizes the first letters of every word in a sentence:

my_list = ['apple pie', 'orange jam']
print my_list[0].title()

result:

Apple Pie

or capitalize method which only capitalizes the first letter:

my_list = ['apple pie', 'orange jam']
print my_list[0].capitalize()

result:

Apple pie

answered Mar 29, 2015 at 20:13

SelcukSelcuk

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There are 2 functions to do this, title and capitalize.

Title capitalizes the first letter of every word

>>> 'test code'.title()
'Test Code'

It also «works» if the first character is a digit:

>>> '_test'.title()
'_Test'

Capitalize will do it for the first word, and do nothing if the first character is not a letter:

>>> 'test code'.capitalize()
'Test code'

>>> '_test'.capitalize()
'_test'

answered Mar 29, 2015 at 20:18

dhokasdhokas

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For capitalizing all letters in a word list

fruitlist = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'durian', 'orange']
for i in fruitlist:
    print (i.upper(), end=', ')

If you want just the First letter of every word …

fruitlist = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'durian', 'orange']
for i in fruitlist:
    print (i.title(), end=', ') #in this case i.capitalize() can also be used

answered Oct 28, 2018 at 12:02

You can use camelcase package:

import camelcase

list_name = input("Enter a list of names")
print(list_name)
cm = camelcase.CamelCase()
list_name = cm.hump(list_name)

Gorka

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answered Apr 20, 2021 at 21:00

x = ['roger federer', 'timothy olyphant', 'rani laxmibai', 'lata mangeshkar']
x = str(x)
x =(x.title().replace('[','').replace(']',''))
x = ''.join(x)
print(x)

Solution — 'Roger Federer', 'Timothy Olyphant', 'Rani Laxmibai', 'Lata Mangeshkar'

Here I have Converted the list(x) into string by str(x) so we can use functions like title or capitalize in string(x). You can use dir(x) to see which function can be used for that object x in string.
I have used title function, you can use title or capitalize and the replaced it with nothing.
By using Join it is combined Everything.
Please comment on my steps and working process. Thank You.

answered Jun 27, 2021 at 6:55

a = ['alpha', 'bravo','rocky']


def listC(a):


    l = [i.Title() for i in a] # [expression for item in list]
    return l

l = listC(a)

print(l)

answered Mar 3, 2022 at 14:57

KoosulKoosul

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I teach my students the meanings of some English words daily. I randomly pick some words and write them on the whiteboard so that my students note them down and memorize the meanings later.
For example, today I taught the meanings of these five words:

Generosity
Faithful
Chaos
Charm
Lenient

Should I write it in capitals as I’ve done above, or in lower case like this:

generosity
faithful
chaos
charm
lenient

ewie

in lower case like this:

generosity
faithful
chaos
charm
lenient

:thumbsup:

May I ask why you wouldn’t prefer to write them in capitals?

Myridon

… because they are not at the beginning of a sentence and they are not proper nouns and they are not the pronoun «I».

… because they are not at the beginning of a sentence and they are not proper nouns and they are not the pronoun «I».

Does that really matter? I mean, I am just treating them as «words» which my students will learn the meanings of. So shouldn’t there be a choice for me to prefer either way?

Myridon

They aren’t capitalized in the dictionary. You’re teaching them that they begin with a capital letter. What if one word in the list actually does begin with a capital letter? How will you show the difference?
By your logic, you might prefer to capitalize the third letter.

Actually, headwords

are

given a capital letter in some dictionaries (Shorter OED, Petit Larousse), and it’s a blasted nuisance! Since there is often an important distinction between capitalised proper nouns and other, non-capitalised nouns, dictionaries ought to set an example. So should we all.

ewie

So shouldn’t there be a choice for me to prefer either way?

If you’re just going to go with your preferred way, why bother asking us? :confused:

Actually, headwords

are

given a capital letter in some dictionaries (Shorter OED, Petit Larousse), and it’s a blasted nuisance! Since there is often an important distinction between capitalised proper nouns and other, non-capitalised nouns, dictionaries ought to set an example. So should we all.

Sorry, I don’t understand your point. What do you mean to say here?

Does that really matter? I mean, I am just treating them as «words» which my students will learn the meanings of. So shouldn’t there be a choice for me to prefer either way?

You think capitalization is personal preference? This surprises me.

What if your students unconsciously «learn» that capitalization is personal preference? They will have to «un-learn» that later.

Sorry, I don’t understand your point. What do you mean to say here?

I said that those dictionaries that don’t distinguish between capitals and lower-case are a b!%*$¤ nuisance. I think that was clear.

If I am consulting a dictionary, it’s because I am uncertain about a word. I expect the dictionary to give me accurate information about the spelling of the word, including whether it’s spelt with a capital or not. If I discover that a dictionary spells

all

headwords with a capital, I can’t trust it. Let me create an example. Suppose you become so important that your name occurs in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. It will appear among other headwords thus:

Royal oak

Royalty

Roymalika

Royston crow

Rub

Now, I’m pretty sure that the words royalty and rub don’t need capitals. But I suspect that Royston crow and Roymalika

need a capital R. But since the SOED gives

every

headword a capital, what can I be sure of? The dictionary is setting a bad example.

Fortunately I can consult Chambers and Collins, which only give capitals to headwords where they are needed.

Random House @ WRF also follows the sensible rule: for example, the headwords

cap•i•tal1 /ˈkæpɪtəl/ ….
Cap•i•tol (kap′i tl), ….

As people have pointed out above, using all lower-case letters to present a new word helps the students to become familiar with the most common form of the word – that is, the form inside a sentence. This will help them learn to recognize the word and to write it correctly.

I said that those dictionaries that don’t distinguish between capitals and lower-case are a b!%*$¤ nuisance. I think that was clear.

If I am consulting a dictionary, it’s because I am uncertain about a word. I expect the dictionary to give me accurate information about the spelling of the word, including whether it’s spelt with a capital or not. If I discover that a dictionary spells

all

headwords with a capital, I can’t trust it. Let me create an example. Suppose you become so important that your name occurs in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. It will appear among other headwords thus:

Royal oak

Royalty

Roymalika

Royston crow

Rub

Now, I’m pretty sure that the words royalty and rub don’t need capitals. But I suspect that Royston crow and Roymalika

do

need a capital R. But since the SOED gives

every

headword a capital, what can I be sure of? The dictionary is setting a bad example.

Fortunately I can consult Chambers and Collins, which only give capitals to headwords where they are needed.

If write all those words in small letters as below, would it still be bad, because ‘Roymalika» and «Royston crow» should be capitalized?

royal oak
royalty
roymalika
royston crow
rub

Yes, and «Royal Oak» too.

Yes, and «Royal Oak» too.

So it means that we, in a list, should only capitalize those words which are proper nouns, and not those which are common nouns?
Like this:

Royal oak
royalty
Roymalika
Royston crow
rub

Yes, but not necessarily always. It depends on what kind of list it is. It could be an index of titles, and titles have their own capitalization rules.

Yes, but not necessarily always. It depends on what kind of list it is. It could be an index of titles, and titles have their own capitalization rules.

Right.
If they’re all common nouns (as in the list in the OP), they should all be in lower-case, and if they’re all proper nouns, they should all be in capitals?

In sentences yes, but it depends on what the list is a list of. If it’s just a list of words you want your students to learn or discuss, then yes, only capitalise proper nouns.

Myridon

If this refers to a species of tree, it is probably just a royal oak (no capital letters) named because it is regal in appearance, but it’s possible that it is named for someone named Royal and is the Royal oak. It could also refer to the specific tree known as the Royal Oak (both words capitalized) which figures in the history of Charles II.
Capital letters are part of the meaning.

If it’s just a list of words you want your students to learn or discuss, then yes, only capitalise proper nouns.

OK, but it’s not necessary that the list consists of nouns. It may consist of verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. In that case, what’s the rule? Capitalize or not?

Yes, I missed Roymalika’s error in capitalizing only one of the name’s two words.
I had assumed it was the name of a ship. It has that sort of feel to it. As it turns out, it’s the name of a pub in Edinburgh!

It may consist of verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. In that case, what’s the rule? Capitalize or not?

There is no rule. It depends on context, as with nouns. If you were going to capitalize all the nouns, because of the kind of list it is, then capitalize all the verbs if it’s the same kind of list. The only real rule is that proper names are never

not capitalized

OK, but it’s not necessary that the list consists of nouns. It may consist of verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. In that case, what’s the rule? Capitalize or not?

The principle is the same. Verbs are rarely capitalised but adjectives usually are

they derive from a proper noun: Christian, Pakistani, Punjabi. Sometimes there is a point where a «proper adjective» (if that’s the right term) becomes common and loses its capital letter. We talk about the French language, but a pair of french windows; the Dutch parliament but a glass of dutch courage. The «rule» is quite flexible on this point.

then capitalize all the verbs if it’s the same kind of list.

What kind of list you’d expect to use all verbs in capitals in?
And, if the above OP list consists of verbs or adjectives or adverbs etc, then should I lower-case them or capitalize them?

What kind of list you’d expect to use all verbs in capitals in?

I’ve no idea. It depends on context. See #17. You’re asking unanswerable questions.

… I had assumed it was the name of a ship. It has that sort of feel to it. As it turns out, it’s the name of a pub in Edinburgh!

It is the name of a ship, actually several Royal Navy ships over the past few centuries. (See this Wikipedia page.) I’m sure many other things have been named for it as well, including a lot of pubs in other places.

if the above OP list consists of verbs or adjectives or adverbs etc, then should I lower-case them or capitalize them?

Let’s go back to the beginning, and answer your OP question. You asked about randomly picking some words and writing them on the whiteboard so that your students can note them down and memorise the meanings later. ewie answered this in post #2. With the addition of saying that proper nouns should be capitalised, that’s it, question answered.

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List of World Capitals and Their Countries

A capital or simply put as the capital city is a district or town or a municipality that holds the primary status within a country, province, state or another administrative region, generally as its seat of government. The 197 towns or cities as identified as the capital cities of their countries constitute the world capitals and each of them differ in terms of currency, healthcare, pollution level, inhabitants, standard of living, safety and many other factors. All these factors prompt towards the quality of life. Thus, one of the most frequent question striking our mind could be that what is the best place to live? Well, as per the survey Australian capital Canberra is the world’s best place to live in and thereafter the Canadian Ottawa. Apart from this London- the capital city of the Great Britain is one of the most visited towns of the world followed by Bangkok- the capital city of Thailand and then the capital city of France i.e. Paris.

Countries Of The World and Their Capitals

Country	Capital city
Afghanistan	Kabul
Albania	Tirana
Algeria	Algiers
Andorra	Andorra la Vella
Angola	Luanda
Antigua and Barbuda	Saint John’s
Argentina	Buenos Aires
Armenia	Yerevan
Australia	Canberra
Austria	Vienna
Azerbaijan	Baku
Bahamas	Nassau
Bahrain	Manama
Bangladesh	Dhaka
Barbados	Bridgetown
Belarus	Minsk
Belgium	Brussels
Belize	Belmopan
Benin	Porto-Novo
Bhutan	Thimphu
Bolivia	Sucre (de jure), La Paz (seat of government)
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo
Botswana	Gaborone
Brazil	Brasilia
Brunei	Bandar Seri Begawan
Bulgaria	Sofia
Burkina Faso	Ouagadougou
Burundi	Gitega
Cabo Verde	Praia
Cambodia	Phnom Penh
Cameroon	Yaounde
Canada	Ottawa
Central African Republic	Bangui
Chad	N’Djamena
Chile	Santiago
China	Beijing
Colombia	Bogotá
Comoros	Moroni
Congo, Democratic Republic of the	Kinshasa
Congo, Republic of the	Brazzaville
Costa Rica	San Jose
Cote d’Ivoire	Yamoussoukro
Croatia	Zagreb
Cuba	Havana
Cyprus	Nicosia
Czechia	Prague
Denmark	Copenhagen
Djibouti	Djibouti (city)
Dominica	Roseau
Dominican Republic	Santo Domingo
Ecuador	Quito
Egypt	Cairo
El Salvador	San Salvador
Equatorial Guinea	Malabo (de jure), Oyala (seat of government)
Eritrea	Asmara
Estonia	Tallinn
Eswatini (formerly Swaziland)	Mbabane (administrative), Lobamba (legislative, royal)
Ethiopia	Addis Ababa
Fiji	Suva
Finland	Helsinki
France	Paris
Gabon	Libreville
Gambia	Banjul
Georgia	Tbilisi
Germany	Berlin
Ghana	Accra
Greece	Athens
Grenada	Saint George’s
Guatemala	Guatemala City
Guinea	Conakry
Guinea-Bissau	Bissau
Guyana	Georgetown
Haiti	Port-au-Prince
Honduras	Tegucigalpa
Hungary	Budapest
Iceland	Reykjavik
India	New Delhi
Indonesia	Jakarta
Iran	Tehran
Iraq	Baghdad
Ireland	Dublin
Israel	Jerusalem
Italy	Rome
Jamaica	Kingston
Japan	Tokyo
Jordan	Amman
Kazakhstan	Nur-Sultan
Kenya	Nairobi
Kiribati	Tarawa
Kosovo	Pristina
Kuwait	Kuwait City
Kyrgyzstan	Bishkek
Laos	Vientiane
Latvia	Riga
Lebanon	Beirut
Lesotho	Maseru
Liberia	Monrovia
Libya	Tripoli
Liechtenstein	Vaduz
Lithuania	Vilnius
Luxembourg	Luxembourg (city)
Madagascar	Antananarivo
Malawi	Lilongwe
Malaysia	Kuala Lumpur
Maldives	Male
Mali	Bamako
Malta	Valletta
Marshall Islands	Majuro
Mauritania	Nouakchott
Mauritius	Port Louis
Mexico	Mexico City
Micronesia	Palikir
Moldova	Chisinau
Monaco	Monaco
Mongolia	Ulaanbaatar
Montenegro	Podgorica
Morocco	Rabat
Mozambique	Maputo
Myanmar (formerly Burma)	Naypyidaw
Namibia	Windhoek
Nauru	Yaren District (de facto)
Nepal	Kathmandu
Netherlands	Amsterdam
New Zealand	Wellington
Nicaragua	Managua
Niger	Niamey
Nigeria	Abuja
North Korea	Pyongyang
North Macedonia (formerly Macedonia)	Skopje
Norway	Oslo
Oman	Muscat
Pakistan	Islamabad
Palau	Ngerulmud
Palestine	Jerusalem (East)
Panama	Panama City
Papua New Guinea	Port Moresby
Paraguay	Asunción
Peru	Lima
Philippines	Manila
Poland	Warsaw
Portugal	Lisbon
Qatar	Doha
Romania	Bucharest
Russia	Moscow
Rwanda	Kigali
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Basseterre
Saint Lucia	Castries
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Kingstown
Samoa	Apia
San Marino	San Marino
Sao Tome and Principe	São Tomé
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh
Senegal	Dakar
Serbia	Belgrade
Seychelles	Victoria
Sierra Leone	Freetown
Singapore	Singapore
Slovakia	Bratislava
Slovenia	Ljubljana
Solomon Islands	Honiara
Somalia	Mogadishu
South Africa	Pretoria (administrative), Cape Town (legislative), Bloemfontein (judicial)
South Korea	Seoul
South Sudan	Juba
Spain	Madrid
Sri Lanka	Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
Sudan	Khartoum
Suriname	Paramaribo
Sweden	Stockholm
Switzerland	Bern
Syria	Damascus
Taiwan	Taipei
Tajikistan	Dushanbe
Tanzania	Dodoma
Thailand	Bangkok
Timor-Leste	Dili
Togo	Lomé
Tonga	Nukuʻalofa
Trinidad and Tobago	Port of Spain
Tunisia	Tunis
Turkey	Ankara
Turkmenistan	Ashgabat
Tuvalu	Funafuti
Uganda	Kampala
Ukraine	Kyiv (also known as Kiev)
United Arab Emirates	Abu Dhabi
United Kingdom	London
United States of America	Washington, D.C.
Uruguay	Montevideo
Uzbekistan	Tashkent
Vanuatu	Port Vila
Vatican City (Holy See)	Vatican City
Venezuela	Caracas
Vietnam	Hanoi
Yemen	Sana’a
Zambia	Lusaka
Zimbabwe	Harare

What do you understand by a Capital City?

Every country comprises of multiple cities and each of those holds their own importance in some of the other ways. Out of these one city is termed as the country’s capital city. For example- the capital of the USA is Washington DC, London is the capital city of UK, New Delhi of India and many others in the same way. You must be rather confused that what makes a capital city unique? The capital city often referred to as capital is usually the one from where the government of the country functions. Every prominent office such as the highest court of justice, parliament and others are usually situated in the capital city. The official leaders of the governing bodies work in the capital city. Additionally, it is the capital city that constitutes of homes of all the significant leaders.

Some Interesting Facts about the Capital City

Capital cities or Capitals are often large but perhaps not the largest city in the country. Some countries like South Africa have more that one capital i.e. 3 and 2 respectively. Few smaller countries usually identified as city-state are itself the capitals i.e. country itself is the capital city. For e.g.- Singapore in Asia and Vatican City in Europe. A tiny island country of South Pacific Ocean named as Nauru doesn’t comprise of any capital. Few countries also change capitals frequently. Usually, Capitals are the cities that have always existed within the country however, sometimes it might be possible that new cities can be built in order to make it the capital city. One such example is Canberra. Beijing- the capital city of China is the world’s largest capital that accommodates about more than 20 million population. Ngerulmud- the capital city of Palau, which is a tiny Pacific island country with around 400 inhabitants.

Conclusion

The most fascinating thing about the world capitals the existing diversity amongst these cities across the world. We collected all name the capitals of the world. These world capitals or the capital cities of the countries also serve as the centers of prime economic, cultural, population or intellectual centers of the nation and are generally called as the primate cities. The news media usually makes use of the name of capital cities as an alternate name for the country. For example- The relations amongst London and Washington symbolizes the relation between UK and USA. There are 195 countries recognized by the United Nations and some dependent territories and all have their capitals with some exceptions where the country itself is capital and in some cases, the country has multiple capital cities.

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EM
Articles
Style
Capitalization

Summary

Capitalize the first word of a sentence. Also capitalize proper nouns: names of people, places, organizations, departments, bridges, parks, buildings, and geographical features (oceans, mountains, deserts, etc.). But don’t capitalize words such as department when they are used as common nouns. Follow generally accepted style guidelines (e.g., Chapter 7 but page 7, Table 5 but column 5). In titles and headings, capitalize the first and last words and all other words except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Official titles such as president and chairman should be capitalized only when used with a name (President Lincoln) or as a name (Mr. President).

Which words to capitalize in a sentence

In addition to the first word of a sentence, other words, such as proper nouns, are also capitalized. Listed here are the general guidelines. Avoid capitalizing words merely for emphasis.

People, places, and companies

Capitalize names of people, places, and companies.

Examples

I spoke to Anita over the phone yesterday.
Nesbit and Rita have gone to Bali on holiday.
It must be nice to have Tooksie back home from college.
John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963 while traveling through Dallas, Texas, in an open-top Lincoln Continental convertible.
All refrigerators made by General Electric simultaneously went sentient on October 7.
It can get a little cold in Antarctica.

Countries

Capitalize the names of countries. However, lowercase any articles (like the), prepositions (of, in, etc.), and conjunctions (like and) that occur within the name.

Examples

Much of the land area of the Netherlands consists of reclaimed land.
Trinidad and Tobago lies on the continental shelf of South America, which is why its ecology is similar to that of Venezuela.
One hundred fifty-six meteorites have been observed and recovered within the United States of America in the last 212 years.

Tip

An initial the in the name of a city is capitalized.

Example

One of my favorite cities in the Netherlands is The Hague.

Proper adjectives

Proper adjectives (adjectives derived from proper nouns) are usually capitalized as well.

Examples

Lulu enjoys eating Italian food.
Did you study Euclidean geometry in school?
Many Dutch expatriates visit this hotel.

Regions and geographical features

Names of oceans, seas, continents, mountains, valleys, rivers, plains, deserts, plateaus, and other geographical features are capitalized.

Examples

The Pacific Ocean is the largest body of water in the world.
How did we make the Aral Sea disappear?
Numerous empires have risen and fallen in the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain of Asia.
Which is the longest river in the world—the Nile or the Amazon?
They lived in a cabin beside Lake Hudson.

Names of regions of the world are also capitalized.

Examples

India is the largest country in South Asia.
The territory of Siberia spans much of Eurasia and North Asia.

Buildings and structures

Names of specific buildings and structures such as bridges and monuments are capitalized. If the word the precedes a name, it is lowercased.

Examples

The president of the United States lives in the White House.
Have you seen the Bent Pyramid of Dahshur?
Millions of tourists visit the Taj Mahal in Agra every year.
The Yongji Bridge of Chengyang is one of the most beautiful bridges in the world.

but

She lives in a white house with blue curtains.
We lived in a cozy little apartment in sight of the Egyptian pyramids.
Anita is an engineer who loves to build bridges.

Departments and organizations

Capitalize names of departments, ministries, institutions, and organizations. Lowercase an initial the when it falls within a sentence, and words such as of, for, and and that may form part of the name. (In short, lowercase articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.)

Examples

The Department of Education has announced that schools no longer be needed.
Nesbit received his master’s degree from the University of Nusquam in 2001.
Anita is an assistant professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy.
The case of the missing lawnmower has been handed over to the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Doesn’t Poco work for the Ministry of Magic?

Don’t capitalize words like department and court when they are used as common nouns.

Examples

Lulu is the best worker in the department.
Nesbit went to university in Nusquam.
Four posts have fallen vacant within the bureau.

Academic subjects

Lowercase names of school subjects such as physics, history, and biology.

Examples

Ms. Scalene was my mathematics teacher in school.
Maya studied philosophy in college.
Nesbit is a physics major from Princeton.

Names of languages, which are proper nouns, are capitalized.

Examples

I am tired of teaching English literature to kids who steal all their assignments off the
If I had taken Spanish instead of Latin in school, I would have been better prepared to travel the world.

If academic subjects form part of the name of a department, capitalize them.

Examples

The Department of Philosophy is hosting a thought workshop today.
It took her forty years to become head of the Department of Mathematics.

Time periods: Days, months, seasons, decades, centuries, eras, historical periods

Capitalize names of days and months.

Examples

We leave for Thailand on Tuesday.
In January, the world seems renewed.
It was on October 18 that the revolution finally began.

Tip

When a day of the week is pluralized, it is still capitalized.

Examples

I love Saturdays!
It took me a month of Sundays to finish reading this book.

Also capitalize names of holidays, festivals, and other special days (which are proper nouns).

Examples

We met at a party on New Year’s Eve.
Did you call your mom on Mother’s Day?
Today is Veterans Day.
We celebrate both Christmas and Hanukkah.

Lowercase names of seasons, unless used to denote a journal issue or a collection.

Examples

The purple sneezeweed blooms in summer.
All the trees danced with joy, glad that the long winter was finally over.

but

The Fall 2021 issue of is out in stores now.

Lowercase names of decades and centuries.

Examples

She is a child of the nineties.
The pandemic of the twenty-first century affected more people across more continents than any plague of the past.

The names of eras and historical periods are usually capitalized but not always. Terms that are merely descriptive are often lowercased.

Examples

For women, the Renaissance was no different from any other period in history.
No, Johnny, electricity had nothing to do with the Dark Ages being
These pieces of jewelry are from the early centuries of the Common Era.

but

This school still uses colonial-era teaching methods.
Some call this book the last great novel of the postmodern era.

Note

Descriptive terms such as “postmodern” and “modern” may sometimes be capitalized in writing when used to refer to time periods or art movements, although lowercasing them is usually preferred. Follow a consistent style within a document.

Historical events

Capitalize the names of specific events in history.

Examples

The Russian Revolution broke out before World War I was over.
Nobody knows how many people died in the Massacre of Xuzhou.
The Battle of Waterloo marked Napoleon’s final defeat.

but

It will take a revolution to end this war.
Hundreds of people were slaughtered in the massacre.
A battle was fought on this field 200 years ago.

Celestial bodies

Names of galaxies, stars, planets, and other celestial bodies are generally capitalized.

Examples

How far away from us is Alpha Centauri?
For millennia, humans looked up in wonder at the Milky Way.
We were guided on our travels by the North Star.
Travelers to Neptune are advised to wear their space suits at all times to avoid freezing to death.

An exception is the “solar system,” which is usually lowercased. Also, the word earth, even when used to mean our planet, may be lowercased, especially when preceded by the word the.

Examples

What on earth are you talking about?
Some people still believe the earth is the center of the universe.

However, when used with names of other planets or in scientific writing, the word is capitalized.

Examples

I would rather live on Venus than Earth.
Here is a photograph of Earth as seen from space.

Similarly, the words sun and moon are not usually capitalized, except in scientific writing.

Examples

“The Sun is a yellow dwarf star, a hot ball of glowing gases at the heart of our solar system.”
The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite.

but

The sun and all the stars will fade away someday.
All her crayons have melted in the sun.
In the light of a gibbous moon, the princess crept toward the moonlit pond.

When used as common nouns (for example, in the plural), these words are always lowercased.

Examples

There are seventy-nine known moons of Jupiter, none of which I have visited.
Our new planet has two suns, so it’s always day wherever you are.

Nouns before numerals or letters

In general, capitalize nouns followed by numerals or letters that are part of a series.

Examples

In Chapter 3, we discuss the importance of tea in the life of a human being.

one of a series of chapters (Chapter 1, Chapter 2, Chapter 3, . . .)

The routing graph is presented in Figure 4.
For data collected in February, see Table 3.
Here are the results of Experiment 9.
I present to you Exhibit A, a screwdriver covered in blood.
For a discussion on tea leaves specifically from Darjeeling, see Appendix C.

but

She gave away the entire plot right in the first chapter of the book.
Could you check whether the fourth figure on this page is correct?
Pricing details are provided in an appendix to the report.

Words such as page, paragraph, line, stanza, row, and column are not usually capitalized, even when followed by a number.

Examples

I am still on page 7 of this book.
Please check the number in row 9, column 3.

Tip

When speaking about the parts of a book or a document, the general rule is that if a word can act as a heading, it is capitalized. Thus, while “Chapter 3” is capitalized, “page 3” isn’t. Similarly, “Table 5” should be capitalized, but “row 5” should not.

Nouns followed by numerals or letters that are not items in a numbered series but merely act as placeholders are generally lowercased.

Examples

This car is no Ferrari, but it will take you from point A to point B.
Let’s go with option 1 then.

Models, theories, and schools of thought

Do not capitalize the names of models and theories unless they contain proper nouns.

Examples

The motivational theory we use is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
The competitive strength of an organization can be assessed using Porter’s five forces model.
A brand positioning map can help you understand how consumers perceive your brand in comparison to others.
Psychologists have finally proven Freud’s repressed memory theory.
Only the privileged can speak blithely of existentialism.
We used the differential equation model to compare the two sets of data.
Albert Einstein is famous not just for his hairdo but also his general theory of relativity.

Note

Schools of thought and philosophical approaches are sometimes capitalized (e.g., Existentialism), although most style manuals recommend lowercasing them. Such questions of capitalization are a matter of style rather than grammar. Follow a consistent style within a document.

Diseases and disorders

Don’t capitalize the names of diseases, conditions, and disorders.

Examples

Diseases such as malaria and cholera can be prevented by taking certain precautions.
I wasn’t in at work last week because I had the flu.
She was diagnosed with postpartum depression but insisted it was merely a case of acute nihilism.

However, do capitalize any proper nouns that form part of the name.

Examples

Studies show that may slow the progress of Alzheimer’s disease.
Farley was about five years old when symptoms of Duchenne muscular dystrophy began to appear.

Species

Do not capitalize the common names of species.

Examples

There are fewer than four thousand tigers left in the world.
The tiger is the largest member of the cat family.
The spur-winged goose lives on a diet of blister beetles, which makes this goose poisonous to predators.

Proper adjectives that form part of the name are capitalized.

Examples

The Egyptian goose is native to Africa.
The Tasmanian tiger went extinct in 1936.

Latin names of species are italicized. Capitalize the genus, and lowercase the species name (even if it is a proper adjective).

Examples

The Mangifera indica, or the mango, is native to the Indian subcontinent.
The Chinese mountain cat belongs to the genus Felis.

Directions

Lowercase words such as east and west (and derivative words such as eastern) when referring to direction or location.

Examples

Wheat is grown in the western region of the country.
We went up a narrow road north into the mountains.

Capitalize the names of regions and places.

Examples

Uruguay is a beautiful country in South America.
Baltimore is a major city in the Northeast.

For more examples, see North, South, East, West: Are Directions Capitalized?

Official titles

Capitalize official titles when used before a person’s name or in place of it.

Examples

Lulu interviewed President Clinton in 1999.
Early this morning, Vice Chancellor Wang announced her resignation.
We invited Premier Johnson to watch the launch of the space shuttle.
Fortunately, Deputy Prime Minister Femy will not be present.

but

Four former presidents attended the funeral.
When will Anita be promoted from vice chancellor to chancellor?
We went to hear the premier speak in Ontario.
Who knows what the duties are of a deputy prime minister?

For more examples, see this article on capitalizing civil and official titles.

Kinship terms

Lowercase words such as “mom” and “dad” when you use them as common nouns.

Examples

My dad likes to tell the strangest jokes.
My mother’s childhood photographs smell of the past.
Maya’s aunt is an astronaut and a scientist.

But capitalize familial terms used as a name or before a name.

Examples

I wonder why Mom and Dad haven’t called me yet.
Please, Mother, try to understand!
Lulu visited Grandpa last week.
I hope Aunt Lily enjoys her trip to Mars.

For more examples, see this article on when to capitalize family titles.

Titles and headings

Titles and headings may be capitalized using either title case or sentence case. Various style guides prescribe different rules. In general, in title case, the first and last words and all words except articles (a, an, the), prepositions (of, in, on, at, etc.), and conjunctions (and, or, but, etc.) are capitalized.

Examples

The Unbearable Lightness of Being
To the Lighthouse
Stranger in a Strange Land
The Book of Laughter and Forgetting

Caution

In title case, capitalize all forms of the be verb (is, are, were, etc.).

Examples

How to Be an Antiracist
Eleanor Oliphant Is Completely Fine
When We Were Orphans

In sentence case, only the first word and all proper nouns are capitalized.

Examples

A pair of blue eyes
Jane Eyre
The truth about Mary

For more examples, including how to capitalize hyphenated terms, see Words to Capitalize in Titles and Headings.

Usage guide

Capitalize names of people, places, companies, departments, and geographical features. In names of countries, organizations, and departments, as well as in titles and headings, articles (a, an, the), prepositions (of, in, etc.), and conjunctions (and, or, etc.) are lowercased. Avoid unnecessary capitalization. While words used as names should be capitalized (“Mom lives in the Rocky Mountains”), common nouns are lowercased (“Nesbit’s mom lives in the mountains”).

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Conclusion

Summary

Which words to capitalize in a sentence

People, places, and companies

Countries

Proper adjectives

Regions and geographical features

Buildings and structures

Departments and organizations

Academic subjects

Time periods: Days, months, seasons, decades, centuries, eras, historical periods

Historical events

Celestial bodies

Nouns before numerals or letters

Models, theories, and schools of thought

Diseases and disorders

Species

Directions

Official titles

Kinship terms

Titles and headings

Usage guide