By borrowing or loan word we mean a word which came

The
term borrowing
is used in linguistics to denote the process of adopting words from
other languages and also the result of this process, the language
material itself. It has already been stated that not only words, but
also word-building affixes were borrowed into English (as is the case
with -able, -ment, -ity, etc.).¹
It must be mentioned that some word-groups, too, were borrowed in
their foreign form (e.g. coup d’état, vis-á-vis).

In
its second meaning the term borrowing
is sometimes used in a wider sense. It is extended onto the so-called
translation-loans
(or loan-translations)
and
semantic
borrowing.
Translation-loans
are words and expressions formed from the material available in the
language after the patterns characteristic of the given language, but
under the influence of some foreign words and expressions (e. g.
mother tongue<L.
lingua materna; it goes without saying < Fr.
cela va sans dire; wall newspaper <
Russ. стенгазета).
Semantic
borrowing is the appearance of a new meaning due to the influence of
a related word in another language (e.g. the word propaganda and
reaction acquired their political meanings under the influence of
French, deviation and bureau entered political vocabulary, as in
right and left deviations, Political bureau, under the influence of
Russian). It is of importance to note that the term borrowing
belongs to diachronic description of the word-stock. Thus the words
wine, cheap, pound introduced by the Romans into all Germanic
dialects long before the Angles and the Saxons settled on the British
Isles, and such late Latin loans as alibi, memorandum, stratum may
all be referred to borrowings from the same language in describing
their origin, though in modern English
they constitute distinctly different groups of words.

There
is also certain confusion between the terms source
of borrowings
and origin
of
the
word.
This confusion may be seen in contradictory marking of one and the
same word as, say, a French borrowing in one dictionary and Latin
borrowing in another. It is suggested here that the term source
of borrowing should be applied to the language from which this or
that particular word was taken into English. So when describing words
as Latin, French or Scandinavian borrowings we point out their source
but not their origin. The term origin
оf
the
word
should be applied to the language the word may be traced to. Thus,
the French borrowing table is Latin by origin (L.
tabula),
the Latin borrowing school came into Latin from the Greek language
(Gr.
schole),
so it may be described as Greek by origin.

By a
borrowing or loan-word we mean a word which came into the vocabulary
of one language from another and was assimilated by the new language.

4. Types of borrowed elements in the English vocabulary. Etymological doublets, hybrids, international words, and folk etymology.

International
Words

It is often
the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just
by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in
the field of communication. Many of them are of Latin and Greek
origin. Most names of sciences are international, e. g. philosophy,
mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics,
lexicology. There are also nu-

merous
terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy,
artist, primadonna.

It is quite
natural that political terms frequently occur in the international
group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress,
democracy, communism, anti-militarism. 20th c. scientific and
technological advances brought a great number of new international
words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik. The latter is
a Russian borrowing, and it became an international word (meaning a
man-made satellite) in 1961, immediately after the first space flight
by Yury Gagarin. The English language also contributed a considerable
number of international words to world languages. Among them the
sports terms occupy a prominent position: football, volley-ball,
baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc. Fruits and
foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport their names
too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries, become
international: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango,
avocado, grapefruit. It is important to note that international words
are mainly borrowings. The outward similarity of such words as the E.
son, the Germ. Sohn and the R. сын should not lead one to the
quite false conclusion that they are international words. They
represent the Indo-Euroреаn group of the native element in each
respective language and are cognates, i. e. words of the same
etymological root, and not borrowings.

Etymological
Doublets

The words
shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a
native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests), is a
Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet
there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin.
Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both
de-note articles of clothing. Such words as these two originating
from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape
and in meaning are called etymological doublets. They may enter the
vocabulary by different routes. Some of these pairs, like shirt and
skirt, consist of a native word and a borrowed word: shrew, n. (E.)
— screw, n. (Sc.). Others are represented by two borrowings from
different languages which are historically descended from the same
root: senior (Lat.) — sir (Fr.), canal (Lat.) — channel
(Fr.), captain (Lat.) — chieftan (Fr.). Still others were
borrowed from the same language twice, but in different periods:
corpse [ko:ps] (Norm. Fr.)
— corps [ko:] (Par. Fr.),

travel
(Norm. Fr.) — travail (Par. Fr.),
cavalry (Norm. Fr.) — chivalry (Par. Fr.), gaol (Norm. Fr.) —
jail (Par. Fr.). Etymological triplets (i. e. groups of three words
of common root) occur rarer, but here are at least two examples:
hospital (Lat.) — hostel (Norm. Fr.) — hotel (Par. Fr.), to
capture (Lat.) — to catch (Norm. Fr.) — to chase (Par. Fr.). A
doublet may also consist of a shortened word and the one from which
it was derived (see Ch. 6 for a description of shortening as a type
of word-building): history — story, fantasy — fancy, fanatic —
fan, defence — fence, courtesy — curtsy, shadow — shade.

Hybrids are
words made
up of elements from two or more different languages.

Patterns of
hybrids:

native
affix
(prefix or suffix) + borrowed
stem:
befool,
besiege, beguile;
graceful,
falsehood, rapidly;

borrowed
affix
+ native
stem:
drinkable,
starvation, wordage; recall, embody, mishandle;

borrowed
affix + borrowed stem + native affix:
discovering;

native
affix + native stem + borrowed affix:
unbreakable.

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Лексикология английского языка

* Lecture 5

*Vocabulary extension – расширение словаря *Abbreviation — аббревиация *Clipping — усечение *Blending — слияние *Causative meaning – каузативное значение *

*What is a morpheme? *What is a root? *What is an affix? *What are the derived words? *

* Due to peculiarities of the history of Britain borrowings have been very productive in English. * By a borrowing or loan-word we mean a word which came into the vocabulary of one language from another and was assimilated by the new language. * The main source: * Latin * French * Germanic languages *

*1. The Norman culture of the 11 th c. was certainly superior to that of the Saxons. The result was that an immense number of French words forced their way into English vocabulary. *

*2. Sometimes it is done to fill a gap in vocabulary. * For example the words potato and tomato were borrowed by English from Spanish when these vegetables were first brought to England by the Spaniards. *

* 3. There may be a word (or even several words) which expresses some particular concept, so that there is no gap in the vocabulary and there does not seem to be any need for borrowing. * Yet, one more word is borrowed which means almost the same, — almost, but not exactly. * It is borrowed because it represents the same concept in some new aspect, supplies a new shade of meaning or a different emotional colouring *

*This type of borrowing enlarges groups of synonyms and greatly provides to enrich the expressive resources of the vocabulary. *That is how the Latin cordial was added to the native friendly, the French desire to wish, the Latin admire and the French adore to like and love. *

*Newly formed and borrowed words in English are made in accordance with the existing wordbuilding patterns. *The branch of lexicology that studies these patterns is known as word-building or wordformation. *

*By word-building are understood processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language. *Together with borrowing, word-building provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language. *

*Several different methods of word-formation are recognized in linguistics. *They could be classified into: *Morphological types *Syntactic-morphological types *

*Affixation *Word-compounding or word-composition *Shortening or clipping of words *Abbreviation *Blending *Root creation *

*Conversion *Transfer and extension of meaning. *But there are no regular patterns in English according to which new meanings could appear in existing words. *

*The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this procedure is very important and therefore it is necessary to consider certain facts about the main types of affixes. *From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed. *

* Affixation can be further classified into suffixation and prefixation, according to the type of affix added. * In Modern English suffixation is characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while prefixation is typical of verb formation. * As a rule, prefixes only modify the lexical meaning of stems to which they are added, while a suffix both modifies the lexical meaning of a stem and changes its part-of-speech meaning. *

*1) classification by the part of speech they form: *-noun-forming suffixes (ist, ness, or, stion) *- verb-forming suffixes (ify, ize, ate, en) *- adjective-forming suffixes (ish, able, less, ful, ic, ous) *- adverb-forming suffixes (ly, wise, ward) *

*2) according to their degree of productivity *- productive *Semi-productive (is used to produce a limited number of words) *- non-productive (can no longer produce new words *

* 3) suffixes can be classified semantically according to their meaning they produce. * Thus, noun-forming suffixes can be further classified into: * — forming personal or agentive nouns (er, or, ist) * — forming abstract nouns (hood, ship, ness) * — forming concrete nouns (ing, ery) * — forming nationality nouns * — forming collective nouns (coverage, ) *

*4) can be classified etymologically, from the point of view of their origin (native and borrowed). *5) according to their valency or combining ability (by the lexico-grammatical or part-ofspeech meaning of the stem the suffix usually combines with) *For example, er, ing, ment are added to verbal stems (speaker, reading, agreement) *

*6) Suffixes can be classified by their stylistic reference, the two main classes being neutral and marked. *

*A number of commonly suffixes can be polysemantic. *For example, “ER” may imply: *1) a person following a trade or profession (writer, baker) *2)a person so occupied at the moment of speech (jumper, packer) *3)a person living at a certain place (Londoner) *

*4) a person with an inclination to do something (sleeper, eater) *5) a device or tool (computer, trailer). *

*Prefixes have more concrete and less generalized meaning than suffixes. *One and the same form can convey different meanings if connected to different parts of speech. *There about 25 prefixes that can modify the part-of-speech meaning of stems – usually changing nouns to verbs or nouns to adjectives. *

*Prefixes are classified mostly on the semantic principle, productivity and etymology. *Like suffixes, they can be productive, semiproductive and non-productive. *Semantically they are classified according to the meaning they convey to the modified word. *

*When in a book-review a book is referred to as a splendid read, is read to be regarded as a verb or a noun? What part of speech is room in the sentence: I was to room with another girl called Jessie. *If a character in a novel is spoken about as one who had to be satisfied with the role of a hasbeen, what is this odd-looking has-been, a verb or a noun? *

*This type of questions naturally arise when one deals with words produced by conversion, one of the most productive ways of modern English word-building. *Conversion is sometimes referred to as an affixless way of word-building or even affixless derivation. *

*Conversion is one of the basic ways of forming words in Modern English. *When two words belonging to different parts of speech are phonetically and graphically identical and semantically related, one of them is said to have been formed by conversion. *This is easily seen in the example: *Can a doctor according to his own doctrine of doctoring? *

*There about 14 thousand conversion pairs in Modern English. *Some words as “home”, “back”, “round” are the best-known examples – may have 4 or 5 distinct part-of-speech meanings: *Come back! (adv), the elephant’s back (noun), back door (adj), back the car into the garage (v). *

*Other terms suggested to describe this process are: *- root-formation *- transposition *-zero derivation *- functional change. *The term conversion was firstly used in 1891 by H. Sweet in his “New English Grammar”. *

*To describe the system of a given vocabulary, we must know not only the elements from which the words are built, but also the patterns in which they are combined. *To achieve this aim, we must single out recurrent combinations of morphemes and determine the relations between their components. *

*For example, the difference between “ism” and ‘ity” becomes clear if we contrast humanism and humanity or realism and reality. *Roughly speaking, “ity” forms nouns meaning what a corresponding adjective describes, while “ism” forms uncountable nouns meaning a corresponding idea or form or ideology. *

*A word-building pattern or a derivational pattern is defined as a meaningful combination of stems and affixes that occurs regularly enough for part of speech, the lexicosemantic category and semantic peculiarities common to most words with this particular arrangement of morphemes to be determined. *Every type of word-building and every part of speech has a typical set of patterns. *

*For example, the patterns involved in the use of the negative prefix “un” can be summed up as follows: *1) “un” with an adjectival or participle 1 or participle 2 stem – negative meaning (uncertain, unexpected) *2) “un” with a verbal stem – meaning of reverse action (undo) *3) “un” with a verbal, non-derived stem – meaning of releasing (unbook, unlock) *

*The more productive an affix is, the more probable in the existence of deviations from the regular pattern. *Sometimes the regular pattern is broken, as in the case with: *Flammable-inflammable which seem to be antonyms but in fact synonyms. *

*The word-building pattern is a structural and semantic formula more or less regularly produced. *It reveals: *- the morphological motivation of the word *-the grammatical part-of-speech meaning *Helps to refer this word to some lexicogrammatical class. *

*Analyse the structure of the following compounds and classify them into coordinative and subordinative, syntactic and asyntactic: *bookbinder, doorbell, key-note, knife-and-fork, hot-tempered, dry-clean, care-free, policymaker, mad-brained, five-fold, two-faced, body-guard, do-it-yourself, boogie-woogie. оfficer-director, driver-collector, building-site *

*Analyse the following words morphologically and classify them according to what part of speech they belong to: *post-election, appoint, historic, mainland, classical, letterbox, outcome, displease, step, incapable, supersubtle, illegible, incurable, adjustment, ladyhood, elastic, perceptible, inaccessible, partial, ownership, idealist, hero, long-term, corporate. *

*Abbreviate the following nouns to the first syllable. *Mitten, doctor, grandmother, cabriolet, public, house, gymnasium, proprietor, fraternity, laboratory, margarine, sister, mathematics, trigonometry, veterinary, gladiolus. *

* Comment on the way the underlined words are formed. * 1. After dinner, the woman cleared the table. 2. Finally, to quiet him, she said, she hadn’t really meant it. 3. The differences are now being narrowed 4. Her face, heated with his own exertions, chilled suddenly. 5. Warmed by the hot tea, he warmed to the argument. 6. She came dressed up to the nines. 7. A win in this match is a must. 8. Turn your ought into shalls. *

*Supply the corresponding full names for the given abbreviations of American state (e. g. Colo — Colourado) and so: * Ala. , Cal. , Fla. , Ga. , Ill. , Ind. , Kan. , Ken. , Md. , N. D. , NJ, NY, Oreg. , S. C. , Tex. *

1. 
   What does lexicography study?
   

1. 
   theory and practice of dictionary compiling
   
2. 
   the semantic of a word
   
3. 
   dialect forms of words
   
4. 
   word-building
   

1. 
   What is the largest group of borrowings in English?
   

1. 
   French
   
2. 
   Greek
   
3. 
   Italian
   
4. 
   Spanish
   

1. 
   The most general term in a synonymic group is called:
   

1. 
   the synonymic dominant
   
2. 
   the synonymic head
   
3. 
   synonymic invariant
   
4. 
   synonymic group
   

1. 
   By borrowing (or loan-word) we mean a word which came …
   

1. 
   into the vocabulary of one language from another language.
   
2. 
   into the vocabulary of many languages from one language.
   
3. 
   into the stock of words of different languages from any foreign language.
   
4. 
   into the vocabulary of one language from 2 or 3 other languages.
   

1. 
   Words that have different forms but meanings similar to a certain degree are called…
   

1. 
   synonyms
   
2. 
   antonyms
   
3. 
   homonyms
   
4. 
   polysemantic words
   

1. 
   What does the term “homonyms proper” denote?
   

1. 
   words identical in pronunciation and spelling
   
2. 
   words identical in meaning
   
3. 
   words identical in spelling only
   
4. 
   words identical in pronunciation
   

1. 
   The object of Historical Lexicology is … .
   

1. 
   it studies the evolution of the vocabulary
   
2. 
   it studies the correlation between the vocabularies of two languages
   
3. 
   it studies vocabulary at a certain time of its development
   
4. 
   it studies the difference between the vocabularies of two languages
   

1. 
   What does semantics study?
   

1. 
   meanings of words
   
2. 
   history of words
   
3. 
   sound forms of words
   
4. 
   word concessions
   

1. 
   The conversion, derivation and composition are … .
   

1. 
   the productive ways of word-building.
   
2. 
   the productive ways of producing new words.
   
3. 
   the productive ways of forming new meanings.
   
4. 
   the productive ways of developing the language.
   

1. 
   The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by … .
   

1. 
   adding an affix to some root.
   
2. 
   adding a suffix to some root.
   
3. 
   adding a stem to some root.
   
4. 
   adding some endings to some root.
   

1. 
   Today the suffixes -ard (drunkard), -th (length, heigth) are:
   

1. 
   non-productive
   
2. 
   productive
   
3. 
   semi-productive
   
4. 
   dead
   

1. 
   A word which belongs to the original English stock is…
   

1. 
   a native word
   
2. 
   a loan word
   
3. 
   assimilation of a loan
   
4. 
   a semantic loan
   

1. 
   There are the following types of shortening: … .
   

1. 
   ellipsis, acronyms, blendings, clippings
   
2. 
   clippings, lexicalization, ellipsis, substantivization
   
3. 
   blendings, ellipsis, acronyms, semantic extension
   
4. 
   clipping, semantic extension, blending
   

1. 
   The major types of semantic relations of lexical units are … .
   

1. 
   compatibility, incompatibility, inclusion
   
2. 
   syntagmatic, paradigmatic
   
3. 
   inclusion, hyponymy
   
4. 
   hyponymy, meronymy, serial relations
   

1. 
   Words are divisible into…
   

1. 
   morphemes
   
2. 
   affixes
   
3. 
   allomorphs
   
4. 
   derivatives
   

1. 
   What do we call a notion or an actually existing individual thing to which
   

reference is made?

1. 
   denotatum (referent)
   
2. 
   semantic component
   
3. 
   meaning
   
4. 
   connotation
   

1. 
   Extension of word’s meaning is … .
   

1. 
   the application of a word to a wider variety of referents
   
2. 
   a process when a word with a new meaning comes to be used in
   

the specialized vocabulary of some limited group

1. 
   the acquisition by a word of some derogatory emotive charge
   
2. 
   the acquisition by a word of pejorative meaning
   

1. 
   Words from other languages used by English people in conversation or in
   

writing but not assimilated in any way are:

1. 
   barbarisms
   
2. 
   completely assimilated words