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Borrowing

Borrowing is one of the most common sources of new words in English. The words formed by borrowing of words from other languages are called loanwords. Over 80% of the English words are loanwords, and they are from over 120 languages.

Examples:

ketchup gweilo cha chaan teng laisee dim sum	(Chinese)
balcony opera violin spaghetti macaroni	(Italian)
kindergarten pretzel hamburger iceberg	(German)
karaoke tsunami sushi origami tycoon karate soy	(Japanese)
croissant macaroon resume mayonnaise coup d’etat	(French)
yoga shampoo	(Indian)
yogurt kebab	(Turkish)

A special type of borrowing is loan-translation.

Examples:

red packet (Chinese) — loan-translation

laisee and hongbao — loanwords

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WORD FORMATION Borrowing and word-building (or word-formation) provide for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language. Word formation is the creation of new words from elements already existing in the language.

Groups of morphological word-formation Major −− highly productive affixation conversion compounding Minor − − less productive shortening sound alteration stress interchange back-formation ellipsis onomatopoeia

Affixation (derivation) is is the formation of new words by means of attaching affixes to a stem. .

A STEM AND A ROOT AA Stem −− the part of a word which remains unchanged throughout its grammatical paradigm. singer: singer , , singer s, s, singer ‘s, singer s’s’ possesses both lexical and grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning. .

A STEM AND A ROOT A Root −− the basic part of a word which remains unchanged in the process of morphological derivation. shows the lexical meaning of a word heart, hearten, dishearten, heartily, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweet heart, heart-broken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly

Types of stems Simple stems coincide with the roots of words. a work, a port, a book Derived stems contain one or more affixes. a worker, bookish, skilful Compound stems are made up of two or more simple stems. a room-mate, a girlfriend

Types of of English affixes suffix prefix infix

aa suffix a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class –– ify horr-ify, pur-ify, simpl-ify

a prefix a derivational morpheme standing before the root and modifying meaning. hearten — dishearten, sleep — asleep an infix an affix placed within the word, like — nn ~ ~ in sta nn d or between stems. It is not productive.

Classifications of English affixes according to their: grammatical functions etymology productivity meaning

According to their grammatical functions: noun-forming -al (refus alal ), -er (driv erer ), -ure (pict ureure ) ) verb-forming -ate (navig ateate ), -ite (un iteite ), -ify (simpl ifyify )) adjective-forming -ous (fam ousous ), -y (wind yy ), -en (wood enen )) adverb-forming -ly (dai lyly ), -ward (for ward ), -wise (clock wise ))

According to their etymology: native -ling (OE) duckling -th (OE) length, strength borrowed -ess (French) actress, poetess -ist (Greek) artist, economist

According to their productivity: productive take part in deriving new words in a particular period of language development -dom (OE) kingdom, wisdom non-productive — ade (Latin) blocade, lemonade -ary (Latin) legendary, reactionary -ce (OE, Middle E) once, twice

Conversion a highly productive way of coining new words in Modem English an affixless way of word-building making a new word from some existing root word by changing the category of a part of speech, without changing the morphemic shape of the original word

The telephone rang while I was eating my toast. He would send a cable or telephone as soon as he returned. I have just received a bill from the telephone company.

The most frequent types of conversion: from noun to verb: to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth from verb to noun: do, go, make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry from adjective to noun and to verb: to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey

Compounding — morphological joining of two or more stems in one word. Peculiarities of compounding in English: 1. The regular pattern for the English language is a two-stem compound. 2. Both stems of an English compound can function as independent words with a distinct meaning of their own.

by the juxtaposition of the parts: heart ache n, heart-beat n, mankind, peace-loving, take-off, everything with the help of the linking vowel / consonant o, e, s: electr oo motive adj, speed oo meter n, Afr oo -Asian adj, state ss manman Ways of forming compounds:

Shortening (Contraction) a rather highly productive way of word-building involves the shortening of both words and word-groups is used especially in American English

Shortenings /clippings are produced in two different ways: a new word is made from a syllable of the original word: — — phone from tele phone — — hols from holhol iday ss , , vacvac from vacvac ation — — fluflu from in fluflu enza, fridge from re frige rator a new word from the initial letters of a word group: — — UNUN from the UU nited NN ations

informal shortenings — Who’s the letter from? — My g. f. — Didn’t know you had girl-friends. A nice girl? — Idiot! It’s from my grandfather! More examples of informal shortenings: moving-picture — movie; gentleman — gent; spectacles — specs;

Sound interchange or gradation a productive way of word building in OE important for a diachronic study of the English language lost its productivity in ME and no new word can be coined by means of sound gradation an alternation in the phonemic composition of the root

Two groups of sound interchange Vowel interchange full (adj. ) — fill (v. ) food (n. ) — feed (v. ) blood (n. ) — bleed (v. ) strong (adj. ) – strength (n. ) long (adj) – length (n. ). Consonant interchange use — to use belief – to believe house — to house advice – to advise life (n. ) — live (v. ) bath (n. ) — bathe (v. )

Stress Interchange is neither productive nor regular mostly happens in disyllabic nouns and verbs of Romanic origin accent, compact, impact, compress, impress, conflict, contest, contract, extract, contrast, convict, essay, export, import, transport, increase, insult, object, subject, project, perfume, permit, present, produce, progress, protest, record, survey, transfer.

Back-formation the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure to beg from the French borrowing beggar to burgle from burglar to cobble from cobbler

Ellipsis leaving out a word or words in a phrase or in a sentence when their absence does not affect the meaning is used for reasons of economy, emphasis, or style may be grammatical and lexical.

Grammatical ellipsis — when grammatical words are omitted. When ( I was ) a child, I often played in this garden. Lexical ellipsis may be considered one of the ways of word-formation. weekly < from “weekly paper” finals < from “final examinations” мило < from “ мильна опера ””

ONOMATOPOEIA the naming of an action or thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a natural sound associated with it Words coined by this type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate objects. .

The cock cries: — in Russian куку — кк a-pe- кк yy — in Ukrainian кк y-y- кк a-pi- кк yy — in English cock-a-doodle-doo — In England ducks quack and frogs croak.

Some names of animals and especially of birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation: crow, cuckoo, humming-bird, whip-poor-will, (жалобный козодой) cricket (сверчок)

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The ‘Word Formation Process’ is regarded as the branch of Morphology, and it has a significant role in expanding the vocabulary that helps us communicate very smoothly. The main objectives of the word-formation process are to form new words with the same root by deploying different rules or processes.

In other words, we can say that the word-formation process is a process in which new words are formed by modifying the existing terms or completely changing those words.

Let us see the fundamental word-formation processes in linguistics:

Derivation

‘Derivation’ is a significant word-formation process that attaches derivation affixes to the main form to create a new word. Affixes (prefixes or suffixes) are regarded as bound morphemes.

A morpheme is the smallest meaningful syntactical or grammar unit of a language that cannot be divided without changing its meaning. In contrast to the free morpheme, a bound morpheme doesn’t have any independent meaning, and it needs the help of a free morpheme to form a new word.

Let us see some examples of derivation in the below table:

Base Forms	New Words
Appear	Disappear
Justice	Injustice
Lighten	Enlighten
Friend	Friendship
Happy	Happiness

Back Formation

‘Back-Formation’ is a word-formation process that eliminates the actual derivational affix from the main form to create a new word. However, Back-Formation is contrary to derivation in terms of forming new words. Let us see some examples of Back-Formation in the below table:

Base Forms	Back Formation
Insertion	Insert
Donation	Donate
Precession	Process
Obsessive	Obsess
Resurrection	Resurrect

Conversion

In conversion, a word of one grammatical form converts into another without changing spelling or pronunciation. For example, the term ‘Google’ originated as a noun before the verb.

A few years ago, we only used the term as a noun (search it on Google), but now we say ‘Google it. Let us see some examples of conversion in the below table:

Noun	To Verb
Access	– to access
Google	– to google
Email	– to email
Name	– to name
Host	– to host
Verb	To Noun
To hope	Hope
To cover	Cover
To increase	Increase
To attack	Attack

Compounding

‘Compounding’ is a word-formation process that allows words to combine to make a new word. Compounding words can be formed as two words joined with a hyphen. Let us see some examples in the below table:

Words	Compounding Words
Class+room	Classroom
Note+book	Notebook
Break+up	Breakup
Brother+in+law	Brother in law
High+light	Highlight

Clipping

‘Clipping’ is another essential word-formation process that reduces or shortens a word without changing the exact meaning. In contrast to the back-formation process, it reserves the original meaning.

Clipping is divided into four types. They are:

Back Clipping
Fore Clipping
Middle Clipping
Complex Clipping

Every Clipping has different roles in words when they are assigned. Back Clipping removes the end part of a word; Fore Clipping removes the beginning part of a word; Middle Clipping reserves the middle position. Finally, Complex Clipping removes multiple pieces from multiple words.

Let us see some examples in the below table:

Words	Clippings
Advertisement	Ad
Photograph	Photo
Telephone	Phone
Influenza	Flue
Cabletelegram	Cablegram

Blending

In the ‘Blending’ word-formation method, the parts of two or more words combine to form a new word. Let us see some examples in the below table:

Words	Blendings
Breakfast+lunch	Brunch
Biographical+picture	Biopic
Motor+hotel	Motel
Spanish+English	Spanglish
Telephone+marathon	Telethon

Abbreviation

‘Abbreviation’ is another famous and widely used word-formation method used to shorten a word or phrase. In the modern era, ‘Abbreviation is becoming more popular. Nowadays, people used to use it everywhere. Let us see some examples in the below table:

Words/Phrases	Abbreviation
Junior	Jr.
Mister	Mr.
Mistress	Miss.
Doctor	Dr.
Department	Dept.
Bachelor of Arts	B.A.
Master of Arts	M.A.
Master of Business Administration	MBA

Acronyms

An Acronym is a popular word-formation process in which an initialism is pronounced as a word. It forms from the first letter of each word in a phrase, and the newly formed letters create a new word that helps us speedy communication. For example, ‘PIN’ is an initialism for Personal Identification Number used as the word ‘pin.’

However, let us see some other famous examples of acronyms in the below table for a better understanding:

Acronyms	Words/Phrases
HIV	Human Immunodeficiency Virus
AIDS	Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
NASA	National Aeronautics and Space Administration
ASAP	As Soon As Possible
AWOL	Absent Without Leave

Borrowing

‘Borrowing’ is another word-formation process in which a word from one language is borrowed directly into another language. Let us see some English words which are borrowed from another language:

Algebra	Arabic
Cherub	Hebrew
Murder	French
Pizza	Italian
Tamale	Spanish

Conclusion

Now we know that Word-Formation Processes are the methods by which words are formed by deploying different types of rules. We can create new words by following the above word-formation methods.

We need to do one thing: we have to follow the fundamental rules or processes of word formation.

Azizul Hakim is the founder & CEO of englishfinders.com. He is a passionate writer, English instructor, and content creator. He has completed his graduation and post-graduation in English language and literature.

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What is Word Formation?

Word formation process is subject of morphology where we learn how new words are formed. In linguistics, word formation process is the creation of a new word by making changes in existing words or by creating new words. In other words, it refers to the ways in which new words are made on the basis of other words.

Different Forms of Word Formation

Word Formation process is achieved by different ways to create a new word that includes; coinage, compounding, borrowing, blending, acronym, clipping, contraction, backformation, affixation and conversion.

Compounding

Compounding is a type of word formation where we join two words side by side to create a new word. It is very common type of word formation in a language. Some time we write a compound word with a hyphen between two words and some time we keep a space and sometime we write them jointly. All these three forms are common in all languages.

Common examples of word compounding are:

· Part + time = part-time

· Book + case = bookcase

· Low + paid = low-paid

· Door + knob = doorknob

· Finger + print = fingerprint

· Wall + paper = wallpaper

· Sun + burn = sunburn

· Text + book = textbook

· Good + looking = good-looking

· Ice + cream = Ice-cream

Borrowing

In word formation process, borrowing is the process by which a word from one language is adapted for use in another language. The word that is borrowed is called a borrowing, a loanword, or a borrowed word. It is also known as lexical borrowing. It is the most common source of new words in all languages.

Common Examples of borrowed words in English language are:

· Dope (Dutch)

· Croissant (French)

· Zebra (Bantu)

· Lilac (Persian)

· Pretzel (German)

· Yogurt (Turkish)

· Piano (Italian)

· Sofa (Arabic)

· Tattoo (Tahitian)

· Tycoon (Japanese)

Blending

Blending is the combination of two separate words to form a single new word. It is different from compounding where we add two words side by side to make a new word but in blending we do not use both words in complete sense but new/derived word has part of both words e.g. word smog and fog are different words and when we blend them to make a new word, we use a part of each word to make a new word that is smog. We took first two letters from first word (sm) from smoke and last two (og) from fog to derive a new word smog.

Some more examples of blending are:

· Smoke + murk=smurk

· Smoke + haze= smaze

· Motel (hotel + motor)

· Brunch (breakfast + lunch )

· Infotainment ( information + entertainment)

· Franglais ( French + English)

· Spanglish (Spanish + English )

Abbreviations

Abbreviation is a process where we create a new word by making a change in lexical form of a word keeping same meaning. There are three main types of abbreviations.

1. Clipping / Shortening / Truncation

2. Acronyms / Initialism

3. Contraction

Clipping / Shortening / Truncation

Clipping is the type of word formation where we use a part of word instead of whole word. This form of word formation is used where there is a long/multi-syllable word and to save time we use a short one instead of that long word e.g. the word advertisement is a long word and we use its short form ad (ads for plural form) instead of whole word.

Here are some examples of clipping:

· Ad from advertisement

· Gas from gasoline

· Exam from examination

· Cab from cabriolet

· Fax from facsimile

· Condo from condominium

· Fan from fanatic

· Flu from Inﬂuenza

· Edu from education

· Gym from gymnasium

· Lab from laboratory

Acronyms / Initialism

An acronym is a word or name formed as an abbreviation from the initial letters in a phrase or a multi syllable word (as in Benelux). The initials are pronounced as new single words. Commonly derived word are written in upper case e.g. NATO.

Some common examples of acronyms are:

· CD is acronym of compact disk

· VCR is acronym of video cassette recorder

· NATO is acronym of North Atlantic Treaty Organization

· NASA is acronym of National Aeronautics and Space Administration

· ATM is acronym of Automatic Teller Machine

· PIN is acronym of Personal Identiﬁcation Number

Some time the word is written in lower case (Initial letter capital when at start of sentence)

· Laser is acronym of Light Ampliﬁcation by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

· Scuba is acronym of Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

· Radar is acronym of Radio Detecting And Ranging

Contraction

A contraction is a word formed as an abbreviation from a word. Contractions are abbreviations in which we omit letters from the middle of a word or more than one words.

Some common contractions are below:

· Dr is from Doctor.

· St is from Saint.

· He’s from He is.

· I’ve is from I have.

Affixation

Affixation is the word formation process where a new word is created by adding suffix or prefix to a root word. The affixation may involve prefixes, suffixes, infixes. In prefixes, we add extra letters before root word e.g. re+right to make a new word rewrite. In suffix, we add some extra letters with a base/root word e.g. read+able. In infixes, the base word is changed in its form e.g. the plural of woman is women that creates new word “women”.

1. Prefixes: un+ plug = unplug

2. Suffixes: cut + ie = cutie

3. Infixes: man + plural = men

Zero-derivation (Conversion)

Zero-derivation, or conversion, is a derivational process that forms new words from existing words. Zero derivation, is a kind of word formation involving the creation of a word from an existing word without any change in form, which is to say, derivation using only zero. Zero-derivation or conversion changes the lexical category of a word without changing its phonological shape. For example, the word ship is a noun and we use it also as a verb. See below sentences to understand it.

1. Beach hotel has a ship to enjoy honeymoon.

2. Beach hotel will ship your luggage in two days.

In first sentence, the word ship is a noun and in second sentence the word ship (verb) is derived from the action of ship (noun) that transports luggage, so the word ship (verb) has meaning of transportation.

Backformation

Backformation is the word formation process where a new word is derived by removing what appears to be an affix. When we remove last part of word (that looks like suffix but not a suffix in real) from a word it creates a new word.

Some very familiar words are below:

· Peddle from peddler

· Edit from editor

· Pea from pease

Coinage / Neologism

It is also a process of word formation where new words (either deliberately or accidentally) are invented. This is a very rare process to create new words, but in the media and industry, people and companies try to surpass others with unique words to name their services or products.

Some common examples of coinage are: Kodak, Google, Bing, Nylon etc.

Eponyms

In word formation process, sometime new words are derives by based on the name of a person or a place. Some time these words have attribution to a place and sometime the words are attributes to the things/terms who discover/invent them. For example, the word volt is electric term that is after the name of Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.

Some common examples of eponyms are:

· Hoover: after the person who marketed it

· Jeans: after a city of Italy Genoa

· Spangle: after the person who invented it

· Watt: after the name of scientist James Watt

· Fahrenheit: after the name of German scientist Gabriel Fahrenheit

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People in general have no difficulty coping the new words. We can very quickly understand a new word in our language (a neologism) and accept the use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation process in our language.

In some aspects the study of the processes whereby new words come into being language like English seems relatively straightforward. This apparent simplicity however masks a number of controversial issues. Despite the disagreement of scholars in the area, there don´t seem to be a regular process involved.

These processes have been at work in the language for some time and many words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language.

What is Coinage?

Coinage is a common process of word-formation in English and it is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for one company´s product which become general terms (without initial capital letters) for any version of that product.

For example: aspirin, nylon, zipper and the more recent examples kleenex, teflon.

This words tend to become everyday words in our language.

What is Borrowing?

Borrowing is one of the most common sources of getting new words in English. That is the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout history the English language has adopted a vast number of loan words from other languages. For example:

Alcohol (Arabic)
Boss (Dutch)
Croissant (French)
Piano (Italian)
Pretzel (German)
Robot (Czech)
Zebra (Bantu)

Etc…

A special type of borrowing is the loan translation or calque. In this process, there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. For example: Superman, Loan Translation of Übermensch, German.

What is Compounding?

The combining process of words is technically known as compounding, which is very common in English and German. Obvious English examples would be:

Bookcase
Fingerprint
Sunburn
Wallpaper
Textbook
Wastebasket
Waterbed

What is Blending?

The combining separate forms to produce a single new term, is also present in the process of blending. Blending, takes only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word. For instance, if you wish to refer to the combined effects of smoke and fog, there´s the term smog. The recent phenomenon of fund rising on television that feels like a marathon, is typically called a telethon, and if you´re extremely crazy about video, you may be called a videot.

What is Clipping?

Clipping is the process in which the element of reduction which is noticeable in blending is even more apparent. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech. For example, the term gasoline is still in use but the term gas, the clipped form is used more frequently. Examples

Chem.
Gym
Math
Prof
Typo

What is Backformation?

Backformation is a very specialized type of reduction process. Typically a word of one type, usually noun, is reduced to form another word of a different type, usually verb. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into ude and then the term televise is created form it.

More examples:

Donation – Donate
Option – Opt
Emotion – Emote
Enthusiasm – Enthuse
Babysit – Babysitter

What is Conversion?

Conversion is a change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction. Other labels of this very common process are “category change” and “functional shift”. A number of nouns such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation and so on, can via the process of conversion come to be used as verbs as in the following examples:

My brother is papering my bedroom.
Did you buttered this toast?
We bottled the home brew last night.

What is an Acronym?

Some new words known as acronyms are formed with the initial letters of a set of other words. Examples:

Compact Disk – CD
Video Cassette Recorder – VCR
National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO
Personal Identification Number –PIN
Women against rape – WAR

What is Derivation?

Derivation is the most common word formation process and it accomplished by means of a large number of small bits of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small bits are called affixes. Examples:

Unhappy
Misrepresent
Prejudge
Joyful
Careless
Happiness

Prefixes and Suffixes

In the preceding group of words, it should be obvious that some affixes have to be added to the beginning of a word. These are called prefixes: unreliable. The other affix forms are called suffixes and are added at the end of the word: foolishness.

Infixes

One of the characteristics of English words is that any modifications to them occur at the beginning or the end; mix can have something added at the beginning re-mix or at the end, mixes, mixer, but never in the middle, called infixes.

Activities – WORDS AND WORD FORMATION PROCESSES

Activity 1

Identify the word formation process involved in the following sentences:

My little cousin wants to be a footballer
Rebecca parties every weekend
I will have a croissant for breakfast.
Does somebody know where is my bra?
My family is vacationing in New Zealand
I will babysit my little sister this weekend
Would you give me your blackberry PIN?
She seems really unhappy about her parents’ decision.
I always have kleenex in my car.

10. A carjacking was reported this evening.

(To check your answers, please go to home and check the link: Activities Keyword)

*You may require checking other sources

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