Arnold the english word pdf

I.V.Arnold The English Word(extract) 3.4 THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE
OF POLYSEMANTIC WORDS…………………….2 SHORTENED WORDS AND
MINOR TYPES OF LEXICAL OPPOSITIONS………………6 7.1
SHORTENING OF SPOKEN WORDS AND ITS
CAUSES……………………………..6 7.3 GRAPHICAL
ABBREVIATIONS.
ACRONYMS………………………………………….12
CONVERSION AND SIMILAR
PHENOMENA……………………………………………………….15
8.1 INTRODUCTORY
REMARKS………………………………………………………………………15
8.2 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OP
CONVERSION…………………………….17 8.3 CONVERSION IN
PRESENT-DAY
ENGLISH…………………………………………….18 8.4
SEMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN
CONVERSION……………………………………….20 8.5
SUBSTANTIATION…………………………………………………………………………………..23
SET
EXPRESSIONS………………………………………………………………………………………………25
9.1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
DEFINITIONS……………………………………………25
9.2 SET EXPRESSIONS, SEMI-FIXED COMBINATIONS AND FREE PHRASES 26
9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SET
EXPRESSIONS………………………………………………..29
NATIVE WORDS VERSUS LOAN
WORDS……………………………………………………………32
13.1 THE ORIGIN OF ENGLISH
WORDS………………………………………………………..32
13.2 ASSIMILATION OF LOAN
WORDS…………………………………………………………35
13.3 ETYMOLOGICAL
DOUBLETS………………………………………………………………..39
THE OPPOSITION OF STYLISTICALLY MARKED AND STYLISTICALLY NEUTRAL
WORDS……………………………………………………………………………………………….40
12.1 FUNCTIONAL STYLES AND NEUTRAL
VOCABULARY………………………..40 12.3 LEARNED WORDS AND
OFFICIAL VOCABULARY………………………………43

This phenomenon of co-occurrence has often led scholars not to
differentiate connotations but taking them together call all of
them stylistic or emotional, or some other term. If we take into
consideration that all semantic analysis presupposes segmenting
meanings that come together (grammatical and lexical meaning, for
instance), and also that each of the types may occur separately and
in various combinations with two or three others producing
different effects, it becomes clear that they should be
differentiated. The interdependence of connotations with denotative
meaning is also different for different types of connotations.
Thus, for instance, emotional connotation comes into being on the
basis of denotative meaning but in the course of time may tend to
supersede it and even substitute it by other types of connotation
with general emphasis, evaluation and colloquial stylistic
overtone. E.g. terrific which originally meant frightening is now a
colloquialism meaning very, very good or very great: terrific
beauty, terrific pleasure. The evaluative connotation, when based
on the denotative meaning, does not always supersede it but
functions together with it, though changing it as we have seen in
the above example. This type of connotation is strongly dependent
upon the functional style. It is almost absent in learned
literature and very frequent in colloquial speech and newspapers.
Intensification may become the denotative meaning of a word and
occur without other types of meaning (ever, quite, absolutely). A
connotation may form the usual feature of a word as it exists in
the vocabulary or appears occasionally in some context and be
absent in the same word in other contexts. In every case it is
actualized and takes part in the sense of the utterance. It differs
in this from the implicational meaning of the word. Implicational
meaning (see p. 41) is the implied information associated with the
word by virtue of what it refers to and what the speakers know
about the referent. It remains a potential, a possibility until it
is realized in secondary nomination in some figurative meaning or
in a derivative. A wolf is known to be greedy and cruel but the
denotative meaning of this word does not necessarily include these
features. We shall understand the intensional if we are told that
it is a wild animal resembling a dog that kills sheep and sometimes
even attacks men. Its figurative meaning is derived from what we
know about wolves a cruel greedy person, also the adjective wolfish
means greedy.1

3.4 THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF POLYSEMANTIC WORDS Polysemy is
characteristic of most words in many languages, however different
they may be. But it is more characteristic of the EnglishThere is a
vast literature on the problems of denotation, connotation and
implication that can be recommended as background reading. These
are works by E.S. Aznaurova, M.V. Nikitin, I.V. Arnold, I.P.
Sternin, V.I. Shakhovsky and others. The references are given in
full at the end of the book. 501

vocabulary as compared with Russian, due to the monosyllabic
character of English and the predominance of root words. The
greater the relative frequency of the word, the greater the number
of variants that constitute its semantic structure, i.e. the more
polysemantic it is. This regularity is of course a statistical, not
a rigid one.1 Word counts show that the total number of meanings
separately registered in NED for the first thousand of the most
frequent English words is almost 25,000, i.e. the average number of
meanings for each of these most frequent words is 25. Consider some
of the variants of a very frequent, and consequently polysemantic
word run. We define the main variant as to go by moving the legs
quickly as in: Tired as I was, I began to run frantically home. The
lexical meaning does not change in the forms ran or running. The
basic meaning may be extended to inanimate things: / caught the bus
that runs between C and B; or the word run may be used
figuratively: It makes the blood run cold. Both the components on
foot and quickly are suppressed in these two last examples, as well
as in The car runs on petrol. The idea of motion remains but it is
reduced to operate or function. The difference of meaning is
reflected in the difference of syntactic valency. It is impossible
to use this variant about humans and say: *We humans run on food.
The active-passive transformation is possible when the meaning
implies management: The Co-op runs this self-service shop This
self-service shop is run by the Co-op, but */ was run by home is
obviously nonsense. The component speed is important in the
following: Then though we cannot make our sun Stand still, yet we
will make him run (Marvell). There are other variants of run where
there is no implication of speed or on foot or motion of any kind
but the seme of direction is retained: On the other side of the
stream the bank ran up steeply. *The bank ran without the
implication of direction is meaningless. There are also other
variants of the verb run, they all have something in common with
some of the others. To sum up; though there is no single semantic
component common to all the lexico-semantic variants of the verb
run, every variant has something in common with at least one of the
others. Every meaning in language and every difference in meaning
is signalled either by the form of the word itself or by context,
i.e. its syntagmatic relations depending on the position in the
spoken chain. The unity of the two facets of a linguistic sign its
form and its content in the case of a polysemantic word is kept in
its lexico-grammatical variant. No universally accepted criteria
for differentiating these variants within one polysemantic word can
so far be offered, although the problem has lately attracted a
great deal of attention. The main points can beA special formula
known as «Zipfs Law» has been worked out to express the correlation
between frequency, word length and polysemy. 511

summed up as follows: lexico-grammatical variants of a word are
its variants characterized by paradigmatic or morphological
peculiarities, different valency, different syntactic functions;
very often they belong to different lexico-grammatical groups of
the same part of speech. Thus run is intransitive in / ran home,
but transitive in / run this office. Some of the variants demand an
object naming some vehicle, or some adverbials of direction, and so
on. All the lexical and lexico-grammatical variants of a word taken
together form its semantic structure or semantic paradigm. Thus, in
the semantic structure of the word youth three lexico-grammatical
variants may be distinguished: the first is an abstract uncountable
noun, as in the friends of ones youth, the second is a countable
personal noun a young man (plural youths) that can be substituted
by the pronoun he in the singular and they in the plural; the third
is a collective noun young men and women having only one form, that
of the singular, substituted by the pronoun they. Within the first
lexico-grammatical variant two shades of meaning can be
distinguished with two different referents, one denoting the state
of being young, and the other the time of being young. These shades
of meaning are recognized due to the lexical peculiarities of
distribution and sometimes are blended together as in to feel that
ones youth has gone, where both the time and the state can be
meant. These variants form a structured set because they are
expressed by the same sound complex and are interrelated in meaning
as they all contain the semantic component young and can be
explained by means of one another. No general or complete scheme of
types of lexical meaning as elements of a words semantic structure
has so far been accepted by linguists. Linguistic literature
abounds in various terms reflecting various points of view. The
following terms may be found with different authors: the meaning is
direct when it nominates the referent without the help of a
context, in isolation, i.e. in one word sentences. The meaning is
figurative when the object is named and at the same time
characterized through its similarity with another object. Note the
word characterized: it is meant to point out that when used
figuratively a word, while naming an object simultaneously
describes it. Other oppositions are concrete:: abstract; main/
primary::secondary; central ::peripheric; narrow : : e x t e n d e
d; general:: special/particular, and so on. One readily sees that
in each of these the basis of classification is different, although
there is one point they have in common. In each case the comparison
takes place within the semantic structure of one word. They are
characterized one against the other. Take, for example, the noun
screen. We find it in its direct meaning when it names a movable
piece of furniture used to hide something or protect somebody, as
in the case of fire-screen placed in front of a fireplace. The
meaning is figurative when the word is applied to anything which
protects by hiding, as in smoke screen. We define this meaning as
figurative comparing it to the first that we called direct. Again,
when by a screen the speaker means a silver-coloured sheet on
which52

pictures are shown, this meaning in comparison with the
main/primary will be secondary. When the same word is used
attributively in such combinations as screen actor, screen star,
screen version, etc., it comes to mean pertaining to the cinema and
is abstract in comparison with the first meaning which is concrete.
The main meaning is that which possesses the highest frequency at
the present stage of vocabulary development. All these terms
reflect relationships existing between different meanings of a word
at the same period, so the classification may be called synchronic
and paradigmatic, although the terms used are borrowed from
historical lexicology and stylistics.1 If the variants are
classified not only by comparing them inside the semantic structure
of the word but according to the style and sphere of language in
which they may occur, if they have stylistic connotations, the
classification is stylistic. All the words are classified into
stylistically neutral and stylistically coloured. The latter may be
classified into bookish and colloquial, bookish styles in their
turn may be (a) general, (b) poetical, (c) scientific or learned,
while colloquial styles are subdivided into (a) literary
colloquial, (b) familiar colloquial, (c) slang. If we are primarily
interested in the historical perspective, the meanings will be
classified according to their genetic characteristic and their
growing or diminishing role in the language. In this way the
following terms are used: etymological, i.e. the earliest known
meaning; archaic, i.e. the meaning superseded at present by a newer
one but still remaining in certain collocations; obsolete, gone out
of use; present-day meaning, which is the one most frequent in the
present-day language and the original meaning serving as basis for
the derived ones. It is very important to pay attention to the fact
that one and the same meaning can at once belong, in accordance
with different points, to different groups. These features of
meaning may therefore serve as distinctive features describing each
meaning in its relationship to the others. Diachronic and
synchronic ties are thus closely interconnected as the new meanings
are understood thanks to their motivation by the older meanings.
Hornbys dictionary, for instance, distinguishes in the word witness
four different variants, which may be described as follows.
witness1 evidence, testimony a direct, abstract, primary meaning
witness2 a person who has first-hand knowledge of an event and is
able to describe it a metonymical, concrete, secondary meaning
witness3 a person who gives evidence under oath in a law court a
metonymical, concrete, secondary meaning specialized from witness2
witness4 a person who puts his signature to a document by the side
of that of the chief person who signs it a metonymical, concrete,
secondary meaning specialized from witness21

Some authors call relations within one wordepidigmatic. See p.
41. 53

Chapter 7

SHORTENED WORDS AND MINOR TYPES OF LEXICAL
OPPOSITIONSWord-building processes involve not only qualitative but
also quantitative changes. Thus, derivation and compounding
represent addition, as affixes and free stems, respectively, are
added to the underlying form. Shortening, on the other hand, may be
represented as significant subtraction, in which part of the
original word or word group is taken away. Moreover, every kind of
shortening differs from derivation, composition and conversion in
being not a new arrangement of existing morphemes, but often a
source of new ones. The spoken and the written forms of the English
language have each their own patterns of shortening, but as there
is a constant exchange between both spheres, it is sometimes
difficult to tell where a given shortening really originated.

7.1 SHORTENING OF SPOKEN WORDS AND ITS CAUSES As a type of
word-building shortening of spoken words, also called clipping or
curtailment, is recorded in the English language as far back as the
15th century.1 It has grown more and more productive ever since.
This growth becomes especially marked in many European languages in
the 20th century, and it is a matter of common knowledge that this
development is particularly intense in English. Newly shortened
words appear continuously; this is testified by numerous
neologisms, such as demo n from demonstration; frig or fridge n
from refrigerator; mike n from microphone; telly or TV n from
television set; trank n from tranquillizer; trannie n from
transistor; vac n from vacuum cleaner, etc. Many authors are
inclined to overemphasize the role of «the strain of modern life»
as the mainspring of this development. This is, obviously, only one
of the reasons, and the purely linguistic factors should not be
overlooked. Among the major forces are the demands of rhythm, which
are more readily satisfied when the words are monosyllabic. When
dealing with words of long duration, one will also note that a high
percentage of English shortenings is involved into the process ofTo
prove this an example from Shakespeare might be quoted: Would from
a paddock, from a bat, a gib / Such dear concernings hide)
(«Hamlet», Act III, Sc. 4.) Gib (contracted from Gilbert) a male
cat. Hamlet uses these derogatory epithets about King Claudius.
1341

loan word assimilation. Monosyllabism goes farther in English
than in any other European language, and that is why shortened
words sound more like native ones than their long prototypes.
Curtailment may therefore be regarded as caused, partly at least,
by analogical extension, i.e. modification of form on the basis of
analogy with existing and widely used patterns. Thus, the three
homonyms resulting from abbreviation of three different words, van
a large covered vehicle, a railway carriage, the short for caravan;
van the front of an army, the short for vanguard which in its turn
is a clipping of the French word avant-garde; and van a lawn tennis
term, the short for advantage, all sound quite like English words.
Cf. ban n and v, can, fan, man, ran (Past Indefinite Tense of run),
tan and the obsolete van wing a variant of fan. Shortening of
spoken words or curtailment consists in the reduction of a word to
one of its parts (whether or not this part has previously been a
morpheme), as a result of which the new form acquires some
linguistic value of its own. The part retained does not change
phonetically, hence the necessity of spelling changes in some of
the examples above (dub : : double, mike : : microphone, trank : :
tranquillizer, etc.). The change is not only quantitative: a
curtailed word1 is not merely a word that has lost its initial,
middle or final part. Nor is it possible to treat shortening as
just using a part for the whole as Ch. Hockett2 suggests, because a
shortened word is always in some way different from its prototype
in meaning and usage. Shortening may be regarded as a type of root
creation because the resulting new morphemes are capable of being
used as free forms and combine with bound forms. They ran take
functional suffixes: «Refs Warning Works Magic» (the title of a
newspaper article about a football match where the referee called
both teams together and lectured them on rough play). Cf. sing.
bike, bod,3 pl. bikes, bods, Inf. to vac,4 Part. I vacking, Past
Indefinite tense and Part. II vacked. Most of these by conversion
produce verbs: to phone, to vac, to vet, etc., in which the
semantic relationship with the prototype remains quite clear. They
also serve as basis for further word-formation by derivation or
composition: fancy n (from fantasy), fancy v, fancier n, fanciful
a, fancifully adv, fancifulness n, fancy-ball n, fancy-dress n,
fancy-work n, etc.; or fantasmo supremely fantastic from
fantastic+-mo on the analogy with supremo a chief. It is
interesting in this connection to compare the morphemes tele-in
television and telecast. They are homonymous but not identical.
Tele- in television is derived from Gr tele far, it is a combining
form used to coin many special terms denoting instruments and
processesO. Jespersen also suggests the terms stump words, e l l i
p t i c a 1 words or curtailments. R. Quirk calls them clippings. 2
See: Hockett Ch. A Course in Modern Linguistics. N.Y., 1958. P.
313. 3 Bod probably from body fellow. 4 Conversion from vac n
clipped from vacuum cleaner. 1351

which produce or record results at a distance, such as
telecommunication, telemechanics, telepathy, telephone, telescope
and television itself. Tele- in telecast does not mean far, it is a
new development the shortened variant of television rendering a
special new concept. This becomes obvious from the following simple
transformations: television — vision at a distance, tele(broad)cast
= a broadcast at a distance,1 tele(broad)cast a television
broadcast. In this new capacity tele- enters combinations:
telefilm, telemedicine, teleprompter (an electronic device that
slowly unrolls the speakers text, in large print out of sight of
the audience), teletext, televiewer one who uses a television set,
Tel-star (Anglo-American satellite system used as television relay
station). E.g. It was broadcast via Telstar. Note the capital
letter and the absence of article. Similarly parafrom parachute (Fr
para- protecting + chute a fall) gives paraflare, paradrop,
paradropper, paratroops, paratrooper. The correlation of a
curtailed word with its prototype is of great interest. Two
possible developments should be noted: 1. The curtailed form may be
regarded as a variant or a synonym differing from the full form
quantitatively, stylistically and sometimes emotionally, the
prototype being stylistically and emotionally neutral, e.g. doc : :
doctor, exam : : examination. Also in proper names: Becky : :
Rebecca, Frisco : : San Francisco, Japs : : the Japanese. The
missing part cap at all times be supplied by the listener, so that
the connection between the prototype and the short form is not
lost. The relationship between the prototype and the curtailment
belongs in this case to the present-day vocabulary system and forms
a relevant feature for synchronic analysis. Much yet remains to be
done in studying the complex relations between the prototype and
the clipping, as it is not clear when one should consider them two
separate synonymous words and when they are variants of the same
word. 2. In the opposite extreme case the connection can be
established only etymologically. The denotative or
lexico-grammatical meaning or both may have changed so much that
the clipping becomes a separate word. Consequently a pair of
etymological doublets (see p. 259) comes into being. Cf. chap : :
chapman a pedlar; fan an enthusiastic devotee : : fanatic; fancy :
: fantasy; miss : : mistress. A speaker who calls himself a
football fan would probably be offended at being called a fanatic.
A fanatic is understood to have unreasonable and exaggerated
beliefs and opinions that make him socially dangerous, whereas a
fan is only a devotee of a specified amusement. The relationship
between curtailed forms and prototypes in this second group is
irrelevant to the present-day vocabulary system, and is a matter of
historic, i.e. diachronic study. In both types the clipped forms
(doc, exam, chap, fan, etc.) exist in the language alongside their
respective prototypes. The difference, how1

Broadcast and the elliptical form cast convey by themselves the
idea of distance. 136

ever, is that whereas words belonging to the first group can be
replaced by their prototypes and show in this way a certain degree
of interchangeability, the doublets are never equivalent lexically
as there are no contexts where the prototype can replace the
shortened word without a change of meaning. The possibility of
substitution in case of variants may be shown by the following
example of a brief newspaper note about the prescription of
eyeglasses for racing horses in Chicago. It runs as follows:
«Racehorses Are Fitted with Specs». The substitution of spectacles
for specs would make the headline a little less lively but not
unacceptable. This substitution, as a rule, can go only one way. It
would be, for instance, impossible to use mag for magazine in a
passage of literary criticism. The specific stylistic character of
the clipped form greatly limits the possibilities of usage. The
semantic status of the group of variants (or synonyms) and that of
the group of doublets is also different. Curtailed words of the
first group (variants) render one of the possible meanings of the
prototype creating by this very novelty a greater expressiveness, a
colloquial or slangy shade and often emotional colouring as well.
The following extract will illustrate this colouring: «Still, I
suppose you want to find your room. I wonder where theyve put you.
Half a mo Ill come down and look on the board. You go and make the
coff, Con,» she called back as she came downstairs, «I shant be a
jiff.» Everything with her was an abbreviation. Striking a match by
the notice board, she searched for the number of my room.
«Presuming the Ass Mats remembered.» «The who?» «Assistant Matron,
old Fanny Harriman…» (M. Dickens) It is typical of the curtailed
words to render only one of the secondary meanings of a
polysemantic word. For instance the verb double may mean to
multiply by two, to increase two-fold, to amount to twice as much;
when used by musicians it means to add the same note in a higher or
a lower octave. In a military context the meaning is to move in
double time or run. As a nautical term it is synonymous to the
expression to get round headland, etc. Dub, on the contrary,
renders only one of the specific meanings to make another sound
recording in a cinema film in a different language. The curtailed
words belonging to this type are mostly monosemantic as, for
example, lab, exam, fan. Also they are often homonymous: compare
van and vac as treated above, also gym for gymnastics and gym for
gymnasium, or vet for veteran and veterinary. Between the two
groups of well-defined extreme cases, namely variants or synonyms
and doublets, there exist numerous intermediate cases, where the
classification is difficult. The appearance of a more complex
semantic structure in a word is a step towards its acquiring
greater independence and thus becoming not a variant but a doublet
of the prototype. The second extreme group, the etymological
doublets, may develop semantic structures of their own. Very
complex semantic cases like fancy with its many meanings and high
valency are nevertheless rare. 137

It has been specified in the definition of the process that the
clipped part is not always a complete morpheme, so that the
division is only occasionally correlated with the division into
immediate constituents. For instance, in phone for telephone and
photo for photograph the remaining parts are complete morphemes
occurring in other words. On the other hand in ec or eco (from
economics) or trannie (transistor) the morphological structure of
the prototype is disregarded. All linguists agree that most often
it is either the first or the stressed part of the word that
remains to represent the whole. An interesting and convincing
explanation for this is offered by M.M. Segal, who quotes the
results of several experimental investigations dealing with
informativeness of parts of words. These experiments carried out by
psychologists have proved very definitely that the initial
components of words are imprinted in the mind and memory more
readily than the final parts. The signalling value of the first
stressed syllable, especially when it is at the same time the root
syllable, is naturally much higher than that of the unstressed
final syllables with their reduced vowel sounds. As a rule, but not
necessarily, clipping follows the syllabic principle of word
division, e. g. pep (sl.) vigour, spirit from pepper, or plane from
aeroplane. In other instances it may be quite an arbitrary part of
the prototype, e. g. prep (school sl.) homework from preparation.
Unlike conversion, shortening produces new words in the same part
of speech. The bulk of curtailed words is constituted by nouns.
Verbs are hardly ever shortened in present-day English. Rev from
revolve and tab from tabulate may be considered exceptions. Such
clipped verbs as do occur are in fact converted nouns. Consequently
the verbs to perm, to phone, to taxi, to vac, to vet and many
others are not curtailed words diachronically but may be regarded
as such by right of structure, from the synchronic point of view.
As to the verbs to pend, to mend, to tend and a few others, they
were actually coined as curtailed words but not at the present
stage of language development. Shortened adjectives are very few
and mostly reveal a combined effect of shortening and suffixation,
e.g. comfy : : comfortable, dilly : : delightful, imposs : :
impossible, mizzy :: miserable, which occur in schoolgirl slang. As
an example of a shortened interjection Shun! : : attention, the
word of command may be mentioned. Various classifications of
shortened words have been or may be offered. The generally accepted
one is that based on the position of the clipped part. According to
whether it is the final, initial or middle part of the word that is
cut off we distinguish: 1) f i n a 1 clipping (or apocope), from
Greek apokoptein cut off, 2) initial clipping (or a p h e s i s,
i.e. a p h e r e s i s), from Greek aphairesis a taking away and 3)
medial clipping (or syncope), from Greek syncope a cutting up. 1.
Final clipping in which the beginning of the prototype is retained
is practically the rule, and forms the bulk of the class, e.g. ad,
advert : : advertisement; coke : : coca-cola; ed ; : editor; fab :
: fabulous; gym138

: : gymnastics or gymnasium; lab : : laboratory; mac : :
mackintosh; ref : : referee; vegs : : veggies or vegies,
vegetables, and many others.1 2. Initial-clipped words retaining
the final part of the prototype are less numerous but much more
firmly established as separate lexical units with a meaning very
different from that of the prototype and stylistically neutral
doublets, e.g. cute a, n (Am) : : acute; fend v : : defend; mend v
: : amend; story n : : history; sport n : : disport; tend v : :
attend. Cases like cello : : violoncello and phone : : telephone
where the curtailed words are stylistic synonyms or even variants
of their respective pro totypes are very rare. Neologisms are few,
e.g. chute : : parachute. It is in this group that the process of
assimilation of loan words is especially frequent. Final and
initial clipping may be combined and result in curtailed words with
the middle part of the prototype retained. These are few and
definitely colloquial, e.g. flu : : influenza; frig or fridge : :
refrigerator; tec : : detective. It is worthy of note that what is
retained is the stressed syllable of the prototype. 3. Curtailed
words with the middle part of the word left out are equally few.
They may be further subdivided into two groups: (a) words with a
final-clipped stem retaining the functional morpheme: maths : :
mathematics, specs : : spectacles; (b) contractions due to a
gradual process of elision under the influence of rhythm and
context. Thus, fancy : : fantasy, maam : : madam may be regarded as
accelerated forms. It is also possible to approach shortened words
on the basis of the structure characterizing the prototype. Then
the two mutually exclusive groups are cases correlated with words
and those correlated with phrases. The length of the word giving
rise to a shortening might result from its being a derivative, a
compound or a borrowing. The observation of language material,
however, can furnish hardly any examples of the second type
(compounds), all the word prototypes being derivatives, either
native or borrowed, as is shown by all the examples quoted in the
above paragraphs. The few exceptions are exemplified by tarmac, a
technical term for tarmacadam (a road surface of crushed stone and
tar originally named after the inventor J.L. McAdam); also cabbie
for cabman. But then -man in such cases is most often a semi-affix,
not a free form, and, besides, the process of shortening is here
combined with derivation as in nightie for nightdress or teeny for
teenager. The group we have opposed to the curtailed forms of words
is based on clipped phrases, chiefly set expressions. These differ
considerably from word clippings as they result from a combined
effect of curtailment, ellipsis and substantivation. Ellipsis is
defined as the omission of a word or words considered essential for
grammatical completeness but not for the conveyance of the intended
lexical meaning, as in the following example: theThere seem,
however, to be different degrees of colloquialism. Flu, for
instance, would be normal in newspaper and broadcasting, whereas
fridge would only occur in familiar colloquial, and tec would be
substandard.1391

related two types of blends can be distinguished. One may be
termed additive, the second restrictive. Both involve the sliding
together not only of sound but of meaning as well. Yet the semantic
relations which are at work are different. The first, i.e. additive
type, is transformable into a phrase consisting of the respective
complete stems combined by the conjunction and, e.g. smogFrenglish;
compare also the coinage smaze

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Лексикология современного английского языка, Арнольд И.В., 1986.

  Учебник посвящен слову как основной единице языка, его семантической и морфологической структуре, особенностям английского словообразования и фразеологии. Английская лексика рассматривается как непрерывно развивающаяся система.
В 3-м издании (2-е—1973 г.) обновлен теоретический и иллюстративный материал, расширены главы, посвященные теории слова и семасиологии.

THE DEFINITION OF THE WORD.
Although the borderline between various linguistic units is not always sharp and clear, we shall try to define every new term on its first appearance at once simply and unambiguously, if not always very rigorously. The approximate definition of the term word has already been given in the opening page of the book.

The important point to remember about definitions is that they should indicate the most essential characteristic features of the notion expressed by the term under discussion, the features by which this notion is distinguished from other similar notions. For instance, in defining the word one must distinguish it from other linguistic units, such as the phoneme, the morpheme, or the word-group. In contrast with a definition, a description aims at enumerating all the essential features of a notion.

To make things easier we shall begin by a preliminary description, illustrating it with some examples.

CONTENTS
Preface
Abbreviations
Introduction
Chapter 1. Fundamentals
§1.1 The Object of Lexicology
§1.2 The Theoretical and Practical Value of English Lexicology
§1.3 The Connection of Lexicology with Phonetics, Stylistics, Grammar and Other Branches of Linguistics
§1.4 Types of Lexical Units
§1.5 The Notion of Lexical System
§1.6 The Theory of Oppositions
Part One THE ENGLISH WORD AS A STRUCTURE
Chapter 2. Characteristics of the Word as the Basic Unit of Language
§2.1 The Definition of the Word
§2.2 Semantic Triangle
§2.3 Phonetic, Morphological and Semantic Motivation of Words
Chapter 3. Lexical Meaning and Semantic Structure of English Words
§3.1 Definitions
§3.2 The Lexical Meaning Versus Notion
§3.3 Denotative and Connotative Meaning
§3.4 The Semantic Structure of Polysemantic Words
§3.5 Contextual Analysis
§3.6 Componential Analysis
Chapter 4. Semantic Change
§4.1 Types of Semantic Change
§4.2 Linguistic Causes of Semantic Change
§4.3 Extralinguistic Causes of Semantic Change
Chapter 5. Morphological Structure of English Words. Affixation
§5.1 Morphemes. Free and Bound Forms. Morphological Classification of Words. Word-Families
§5.2 Aims and Principles of Morphemic and Word-Formation Analysis
§5.3 Analysis into Immediate Constituents
§5.4 Derivational and Functional Affixes
§5.5 The Valency of Affixes and Stems. Word-Building Patterns and Their Meaning
§5.6 Classification of Affixes
§5.7 Allomorphs
§5.8 Boundary Cases Between Derivation, Inflection and Composition
§5.9 Combining Forms
§5.10 Hybrids
Chapter 6. Compound Words
§6.1 Definitions and Introductory Remarks
§6.2.1 The Criteria of Compounds
§6.2.2 Semi-Affixes
§6.2.3 “The Stone Wall Problem»
§6.2.4 Verbal Collocations of the Give Up Type
§6.3 Specific Features of English Compounds
§6.4.1 Classification of Compounds
§6.4.2 Compound Nouns
§6.4.3 Compound Adjectives
§6.4.4 Compound Verbs
§6.5 Derivational Compounds
§6.6 Reduplication and Miscellanea of Composition
§6.6.1 Reduplicative Compounds
§6.6.2 Ablaut Combinations
§6.6.3 Rhyme Combinations
§6.7 Pseudo Compounds
§6.8 The Historical Development of English Compounds
§6.9 New Word-Forming Patterns in Composition
Chapter 7. Shortened Words and Minor Types of Lexical Oppositions
§7.1 Shortening of Spoken Words and Its Causes
§7.2 Blending
§7.3 Graphical Abbreviations. Acronyms
§7.4 Minor Types of Lexical Oppositions. Sound Interchange
§7.5 Distinctive Stress
§7.6 Sound Imitation
§7.7 Back-Formation
Chapter 8. Conversion and Similar Phenomena
§8.1 Introductory Remarks
§8.2 The Historical Development of Conversion
§8.3 Conversion in Present-Day English
§8.4 Semantic Relationships in Conversion
§8.5 Substantivation
§8.6 Conversion in Different Parts of Speech
§8.7 Conversion and Other Types of Word-Formation
Chapter 9. Set Expressions
§9.1 Introductory Remarks. Definitions
§9.2 Set Expressions, Semi-Fixed Combinations and Free Phrases
Changeable and Unchangeable Set Expressions
§9.3 Classification of Set Expressions
§9.4 Similarity and Difference between a Set Expression and a Word.
§9.5 Features Enhancing Unity and Stability of Set Expressions
§9.6 Proverbs, Sayings, Familiar Quotations and Clichés
Part Two ENGLISH VOCABULARY AS A SYSTEM
Chapter 10. Homonyms. Synonyms. Antonyms
§10.1 Homonyms
§10.2 The Origin of Homonyms
§10.3 Homonymy Treated Synchronically
§10.4 Synonyms
§10.5 Interchangeability and Substitution
§10.6 Sources of Synonymy
§10.7 Euphemisms
§10.8 Lexical Variants and Paronyms
§10.9 Antonyms and Conversives
Chapter 11. Lexical Systems
§11.1 The English Vocabulary as an Adaptive System. Neologisms
§11.2 Morphological and Lexico-Grammatical Grouping
§11.3 Thematic and Ideographic Groups. The Theories of Semantic Fields. Hyponymy
§11.4 Terminological Systems
§11.5 The Opposition of Emotionally Coloured and Emotionally Neutral Vocabulary
§11.6 Different Types of Non-Semantic Grouping
Chapter 12. The Opposition of Stylistically Marked and Stylistically Neutral Words
§12.1 Functional Styles and Neutral Vocabulary
§12.2 Functional Styles and Registers
§12.3 Learned Words and Official Vocabulary
§12.4 Poetic Diction
§12.5 Colloquial Words and Expressions
§12.6 Slang
Chapter 13. Native Words Versus Loan Words
§13.1 The Origin of English Words
§13.2 Assimilation of Loan Words
§13.3 Etymological Doublets
§13.4 International Words
Chapter 14. Regional Varieties of the English Vocabulary
§14.1 Standard English Variants and Dialects
§14.2 American English
§14.3 Canadian, Australian and Indian Variants
Chapter 15. Lexicography
§15.1 Types of Dictionaries
§15.2 Some of the Main Problems of Lexicography
§15.3 Historical Development of British and American Lexicography
Conclusion
Recommended Reading
Subject Index.

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19. Скачать Лексикология современного английского языка

    Название: Лексикология современного английского языка Автор: Арнольд И.В. Жанр: Учебное пособие Издательство: Высшая школа Год выпуска: 1986 Страниц: 295 Язык: Русский, Английский Формат: pdf Размер: 57 Mb. Учебник посвящен слову как основной единице языка, его семантической и морфологической структуре, особенностям английского словообразования и фразеологии.

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    Учебник посвящен слову как основной единице языка, его семантической и морфологической структуре, особенностям английского словообразования и фразеологии. Английская лексика рассматривается как непрерывно развивающаяся система.

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    М., издательство «Высшая школа», 1986, 296 с. Contents. preface. Abbreviations. Introduction. Chapter — Fundamentals. The Object of Lexicology.

    Лексикология английского языка / English Lexicology.

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22. И.В. АРНОЛЬД лексикология COBPEMEHHOго АНГЛИЙСКОГО

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23. MODERN ENGLISH

    В учебнике нашли отражение такие вопросы лексикологии, как семасиология, структура слова, словосложение и словообра-. зование, словосочетания и фразеологические единицы, этимоло-. гия словарного состава английского языка, основы английской. лексикографии и др.

    This book makes no pretension to deal with the whole vast field of Eng—lish Lexicology. It has a more limited aim, to assist the students of foreign language institutes and departments in their study of the fundamentals of Modern English Lexicology.

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27. Скачать Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного… — Eruditor

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    (на английском языке) Учебник. Для студентов филол. фак. ун-тов и фак. англ. яз. педвузов. М.: Высшая школа, 1983. — 383 c. Blokh M. Theoretical grammar of the English language. В учебнике рассматриваются важнейшие проблемы морфологии и синтаксиса английского языка в свете ведущих принципов современного системного языкознания.

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