Are 1 form in word formation

Suffixes in English: 40 Most Common

как образовывать слова в английском языке

Hey.

Source: https://corp.lingualeo.com/ru/2016/11/16/suffiksyi-v-angliyskom-yazyike/

Formation of adjectives in English

как образовывать слова в английском языке

The formation of adjectives in English is a rather important and interesting topic. Of course, you can speak English at a fairly high level without going into such details, but such information will not be superfluous.

As in Russian, English adjectives can be derived from other parts of speech. These are usually verbs and nouns. Adjectives are formed using suffixes and prefixes. So, first things first.

Formation of English adjectives using prefixes

Prefixes, or prefixes, are added at the beginning of a word and change its meaning. Usually they change the meaning of the adjective to the opposite, negative. A few examples:

  • un— (unlucky)
  • in— (invisible)
  • dis— (discontent)
  • il— (illegal)
  • ir— (irrational)
  • im— (immovable)

There are several prefixes that change the meaning of a word, but without a negative meaning:

  • pre— (pre-emptive)
  • hyper— (hypertensive, hyperactive)

Formation of English adjectives using suffixes

There are a lot of varieties of English adjectives formed in the suffix way. As an example, there is a picture with the main suffixes, as well as a few examples of words.

  • ful (wonderful, graceful)
  • less (pointless, careless)
  • able (vulnerable, tolerable)
  • ible (terrible, permissible)
  • ant (pleasant, hesitant)
  • ent (different, patient)
  • ic (scientific, iconic)
  • ive (active, impressive)
  • y (angry, dirty)
  • ing (interesting, worrying)
  • ed (confused, excited)
  • al (general, typical)
  • (i) an (Victorian, American)
  • You reprise the theme of the  (gorgeous, famous)
  • ish (childish, Irish)

There is also a classification of English adjectives according to the parts of speech from which they are derived. Adjectives can be formed from nouns, verbs, as well as from other adjectives using various suffixes and prefixes, examples of which have already been considered. The very form of the word may also change. For example, the adjective long is formed from the noun length with a change at the root of the word.

Source: https://english-bird.ru/forming-adjectives/

Suffixes in English — types, education, application

как образовывать слова в английском языке

›Learning a language› Vocabulary ›Word formation› Suffixes in English with different parts of speech

Remember those moments in Russian lessons when you were asked to parse a word by defining its prefix, root, suffix and ending? Perhaps this event only caused you headaches, but fear not, everything will be different in English. Let’s not analyze the entire morphological analysis at once, but consider only the suffixes in the English language, which have many interesting features.

A suffix or just the English suffix is ​​a morpheme for word formation in English, which usually comes after the root. In simple words, a suffix is ​​one or more letters, thanks to which a word can change its part of speech, for example, from a verb to a noun:

Verb Noun
read reader (reader)

Or, in general, acquire a different meaning:

Noun / Verb Noun
bruise (bruise / wrinkle) bruiser (fighter)

There are no specific rules regarding suffixes in English. That is, you cannot take one suffix, which, for example, forms nouns, and use it with all words in a row. Suffixes are not always attached to words that look similar or have the same root letter. Nevertheless, a certain logic in their use shines through, and therefore, knowing the suffixes and their functions, you can learn to intuitively form words.

English suffixes: location

As mentioned earlier, English suffixes, like Russian ones, follow immediately after the root:

Root Suffix
length en
lengthen

Suffixes can be followed by an ending:

Root Suffix End
direct or s
Directors

One sentence can contain both a prefix and a suffix:

Console Root Suffix
im patient ly
impatiently

The suffix can change if the word is used in plural:

Singular Plural
opportunity (opportunity) opportunities

Having dealt with the peculiarities of the location and use of suffixes in the word, let’s move on to their types.

Suffixes in English: species

Suffixes can be used to form almost all independent parts of speech. Based on this, they are divided into 5 categories:

  • Noun suffixes
  • Vertex suffixes
  • Adjective suffixes
  • Adverb suffixes
  • Numeral suffixes

Let’s analyze each group separately. Note that there are very, very many suffixes in the English language, and therefore we will consider only the most used of them.

Noun suffixes

The group of suffixes for the formation of nouns is perhaps the most voluminous. It includes:

  • participate in the formation of inanimate nouns from verbs. Table for clarity:
Verb Noun
print printer (a printer)
ventilate ventilationor (fan)
project (project) projector (projector)
  • and also in the formation of nouns expressing a person who is engaged in what the verb denotes. To make it clearer, let’s turn to examples:
Verb Noun
er
chase (to chase) chaser
run runner
call (to call) caller (caller)
-gold
object (object) objector (objector / objector)
compete (to compete) competitor
survive survivor

Often these suffixes are used to form vocabulary words:

rescue rescuer
sail sailor
teach teacher (teacher)
act (play / act) actor (actor)
wait waiter
  • A couple of these professions can be used in conjunction with the -ess (-ress) suffix, perhaps the only feminine suffix used in English:
Masculine nouns Feminine nouns
actor (actor) actress (actress)
waiter waitress (waitress)
steward (steward) stewardess
  • In addition to professions, the following nouns can be changed using the suffix:
Masculine nouns Feminine nouns
God goddess
prince princess
count (count) countess (countess)
lion (lion) lioness (lioness)
  1. — of — a suffix that is used to indicate the person to whom the action is directed, that is, this suffix is ​​the opposite of the -er and -or suffixes:
-er / -or — of
interviewer interviewee (interviewee)
employer employee
addresser (addresser / sender) addressee (addressee / recipient)
  1. -ian — another suffix with which you can express the type of activity. Words are formed from nouns, examples:
Nouns Nouns with -ian
sparrowic (music) musician (musician)
academy academicician (academician)
Physic (medicine) physician
history historian (historian)

The same functions are performed by suffixes:

Nouns Suffixed nouns
-ent
study (study) student
residency (residence) resident
-ant
account accountant
merchantry (trade) merchant
  1. -ist, is usually used with professions related to the scientific field:
Nouns Nouns with -ist
science scientist
zoology zoologist
cynology (cynology) cynologist

And with music:

guitar (guitar) guitarist (guitarist)
cello (cello) cellist
piano pianist (pianist)

Although this suffix is ​​often found in nouns that express supporters of some views and their perception of the world. In this case, the English suffix performs the same function as the Russian suffix -ist, forming almost identical words:

Buddhist
realist
nihilist
atheist
  1. -ism Is another English suffix that is similar to Russian -ism. It denotes concepts related to the ideological currents and beliefs of a person:
Catholicism
liberalism (liberalism)
Marxism

Source: https://speakenglishwell.ru/suffiksy-v-anglijskom-yazyke/

Enjoy learning English online with Puzzle English for free

For knowledge of a foreign language, a wealth of vocabulary is no less important than an understanding of grammar. The more words a person speaks, the freer he feels in a foreign language environment.

The variety of vocabulary is largely determined by the richness of word formation in the English language. The construction of new words is based on general principles. And the one who knows these principles feels much more confident among unfamiliar vocabulary.

The structure of the word and its change

New words are learned gradually. Most often, at first we only understand them in texts or someone else’s speech, and only then we begin to actively use them in ours. Therefore, mastering new vocabulary is a long process and requires patience from the student, active practice of reading, listening and working with a dictionary.

One of the methods to quickly expand your vocabulary is to master the ways of word formation in English. Having understood the principles by which words are built, it is possible to derive the meanings of its cognate words from an already known word.

The building blocks for every word are the root, prefixes and suffixes. The root is the part of the word that carries the main meaning. A word cannot exist without a root. Whereas prefixes and suffixes are an optional part, however, when added to the root, it is they that help form new words. Therefore, when describing word formation in English, we will separate prefix and suffix methods.

All prefixes and suffixes have their own meaning. It is usually quite blurry and serves to change the basic meaning of the word. When a prefix or suffix (or both) is added to the root, their value is added to the root value. This is how a new word turns out.

The formation of new words can lead not only to a change in meaning, but also to change parts of speech. Suffixes are more common in this function. By adding to the root, they translate a word from one part of speech to another, for example, they make an adjective from a verb or a verb from a noun.

So, from one root a whole group can be formed, all the elements of which are interconnected. Therefore, word formation helps learners of English to see the semantic relationships between words and better navigate the variety of vocabulary.

You can get a new word not only through prefixes and suffixes. Another way is compounding, in which two roots are combined into one word, forming a new meaning. In addition, word formation includes the reduction of words and the creation of abbreviations.

Prefixes as a way of word formation in English

A prefix (the term «prefix» is also used) is an element of a word that is placed before the root. Prefix word formation is rarely used by the English language to change parts of speech (as an exception, the prefix «en-» / «em-» for the formation of verbs can be called). But prefixes are actively used to change the meaning of a word. The prefixes themselves can have different meanings, but among them there is a large group of prefixes with a similar function: to change the meaning of a word to the opposite.

1. Prefixes with negative values:

  • un-: unpredictable (unpredictable), unable (unable)
  • dis-: disapproval, disconnection

Source: https://puzzle-english.com/directory/wordbuilding

Features of word formation in English

Good afternoon friends! Today I and the teacher of English, Ekaterina, would like to tell you what word formation in English is. The processes of the emergence of new words can be observed in every language.

And in languages ​​related by origin, the methods of replenishing the dictionary will be very similar, and may even have the same names in the meaning. British and Russian have a number of similar techniques for forming new words.

Let’s dwell on each of them in more detail, and you will see that Word Formation in English is very similar to Russian, and in some respects even simpler.

Plus suffix

Affixing is one of the most common and well-known ways to get new words. You just need to add a suitable suffix or prefix — and the new word is ready.

But if it seems to you that in Russian adding morphemes to the root of a word is very easy, then remember that the most frequent mistakes that we make in spelling words are found in suffixes, and there are a lot of spelling rules for their spelling, not to mention exceptions …

Compared to Russian, the British affixation is very simple: for each part of speech, separate types of morphemes are characteristic:

  •  Verb suffixes — help to form a predicate from adjectives, nouns.

— en or -ize, -ise you add to words in order to give them the meaning of «becoming like the original word»: thick (thick) — thicken (thicken, become thick);
modern (new) — modernize (modernized, modernize);

— ify, fy will help you get a word that means transformation into what the original word said: simple (simple) — simplify (simplify).
— ate is attached to nouns to denote transformation into something or when we show that we are exposed to the initial word: granule (granules) — granulate (granulate).

  • Suffixes of nouns — are needed to get the names of objects, professions, phenomena from words denoting a sign of an object and an action.
  1. By adding -er, -or will get the person doing this action or profession:
    Run (run) — runner (runner), act (play) — actor (actor).
  2. A verbal noun denoting a process can be denoted by using –ing: dance (to dance) — dancing (to dance)
  3. The two suffixes –ness and –ty / -ity will help to form words from adjectives that mean a property or quality, state or condition: kind (kind) — kindness (kindness), major (large) — majority (majority).
  4. Abstract concepts meaning concepts related to the original word can be obtained using a number of suffix morphemes: -ment, — ance (y) / — ence (y), -dom, -ion / -tion / -sion / -ssion, -ure, -hood, -ship, -th: neighbor — neighborhood, move — movement, translate — translation, educate — education , friend (friend) — friendship (friendship).
  5. Nationality or professional identity can be specified using -an / -ian: Italia — Italian (Italian)
  6. It is possible to show that a person belongs to a certain movement or profession by adding –ist — just like in Russian: piano (piano) — pianist (pianist).

The correct use of morphemes to form nouns will help you greatly increase your vocabulary. Often, it is possible to understand which affix should be added at the level of intuition and auditory perception of the language.

Exercises will help you develop these skills. Try the following activity and check your hearing. It is necessary to form new words using the indicated bases and morphemes.

Well, how did it work? If you are in doubt about the correctness of adding an affix, try entering the resulting word into an electronic translator. And of course, try to remember the resulting lexical units.

All these rules will come in handy when preparing for international exams in English.

  1. To indicate a trait, quality or property of an item, you will need the following morphemes:
    -al, -ic, -ical, — ous, -ful, -ly / -y (for nouns), -ant / -ent, -ive, -able / -ible, -ite (for actions), -ary, -ate, -ed.
  2. Lack of quality or feature is always indicated with –less: use — useless.
    • as part of a word in an adjective indicates the similarity bird (bird) — bird- (similar to a bird).
  3. Nationality can be shown by several suffixes, for which there is no specific rule for their use. These are –ish, -ese, -ian / -an: Spain — Spanish.
  4. By adding –ern to the cardinal point, you get the same adjective: south — southern.
    Consider the examples in the table to better understand the principles of adding morphemes:
  • Separately, we can single out the prefix way of forming words. Each prefix has its own meaning, as in Russian:

You also need to know how to form a verb in English, and there is a separate article about this.

Changing nothing

Conversion words are very common in English. This is not a characteristic feature of the appearance of new words for Russian, but it allows you to significantly increase your vocabulary, simply by looking at all the meanings of a word in the dictionary.

Conversion as a way of word formation consists in the fact that the whole word, completely unchanged, passes from one part of speech to another. Therefore, often in the dictionary opposite a foreign word, you can see several translations with the signs adj (adjective), n (noun), v (verb), adv (adverb), which mean different parts of speech.

For example plant (plant, plant) — to plant (plant).

One plus one makes one

Another common way of word formation is word composition. For us to understand its meaning is very simple: merged two roots — got a new meaning: smoke-free (smokeless). These roots can be written together or with a hyphen.

Strokes and sounds

You can get a new part of speech by changing the stress in the word or one of the sounds: export (export) — to export (export).
And you certainly can’t help but stop at the abbreviation, because the British are so fond of abbreviating words and even whole phrases, replacing letters with an apostrophe. As a result of this reduction, we all got the well-known e-mail, which was originally an electronic mail (electronic message).

Now that you have plenty of exercise, sit back and check out the article on England’s coastline with beaches and the Titanic Museum.

Now you see that it is not so difficult to increase your vocabulary, you just need to remember the words you know and try to form other parts of speech from them.

Marina Rusakova’s school will help you improve your English. You will be able to memorize words without memorization by the method of associations, these words you will remember for 10 years, even if you do not learn the language. Understand rules with verbs, prepositions, times. Learn to comprehend English by ear, you will understand what bloggers, anchors in the news are saying and you will understand films.

I hope my story today was helpful to you.

Subscribe and learn languages ​​with us! You will also receive as a gift a basic phrasebook in three languages, English, German and French. Russian transcription will tell you the pronunciation of words, even if you don’t know the language.

I was with you, Natalya Glukhova, I wish you a good day!

Don’t forget to tell your friends about it! You will find new interesting and useful information in my blog.

(2 4,50 of 5)

  • Payments in Germany in connection with the coronavirus for pensioners

Source: https://vivaeurope.ru/languages/english/gramatika/slovoobrasovanije

The ending is ous in English. Suffixes in adjectives in English: the nuances of word-formation definitions

A large number of new words in the English language are formed by attaching suffixes and prefixes to the root of a word.

Suffixing is the process of forming new words using suffixes, prefixing is a similar process where prefixes are involved.

Common noun suffixes:

  1. The suffix -age forms, which show the action or its result (leakage — leakage, coverage — coverage), and nouns expressing the essence of a concept or quantity (acreage — area in acres, voltage — voltage). Due to the ambiguity of some neologisms, the meaning can expand to the name of the place (orphanage — orphanage).
  2. Suffixal added to some verbs to form abstract nouns that denote an action or its result: arrival — arrival, recital — presentation, referral — direction.
  3. The suffix -ance (with its variants -ence / -ancy / -ency), when attached mainly to verbs, forms action names: absorbance — absorption, riddance — elimination.

    This suffix is ​​closely related to -cy / -ce, which are involved in the formation of nouns from adjectives that have suffixes -ant / -ent.

  4. Suffix -ant forms that are related to a person (especially in the technical or business sphere: applicant — candidate, defendant — defendant) or to substances involved in biological, chemical or physical processes: attractant — attractant, dispersant — dispersant.

    Most of the producing words are verbs of Latin origin.

  5. Suffixes -cy / -ce join productively with adjectives ending in -ant / -ent (convergence — interaction, efficiency — efficiency) and nouns ending in -ant / -ent: agency, agency, presidency, presidency.
  6. Suffix -dom semantically similar to -hood and -ship, which denote similar concepts.

    This suffix is ​​attached to nouns to form common nouns, which denote regions, kingdoms or territories: kingdom — kingdom, maoridom — Maori kingdom.

  7. The suffix -ee participates in the formation of nouns, which denote persons who inadvertently appear in a context without volitional action on their part: biographee — the one about whom the biography is being written; standee — a person who is forced to stand (for example, on a bus).
  8. Suffix -eer forms nouns, the meaning of which can be expressed as follows: «a person who has business or is associated with someone / something»: auctioneer — auctioneer, budgeter — budgetary, mountaineer — climber, cameleer — camel driver.
  9. The suffix -er in derivative words indicates that persons from the context are active participants in the events: teacher — teacher, singer — singer.

    Also, this suffix is ​​used to form nouns indicating the place of origin or residence: Londoner — a resident of London, Highlander — Scottish Highlander.

  10. Suffix— (e) ry forms nouns with the meaning of a place where certain actions are performed or specific services can be provided: bakery — bakery, carwashery — washing.
  11. Derivatives with a suffix — (e) ry can also denote aggregate concepts: confectionery — confectionery, pottery — earthenware.
  12. The -ess suffix refers to a small number of derivative nouns that denote female people and animals: princess — princess, tigress — tigress.
  13. Suffix -ful indicates that the noun acts as a divisible object that has a capacity: cupful — a full cup, handful — a handful, tumblerful — 240 ml, a measure of the volume of liquid.
  14. The suffix -hood forms nouns that denote states and aggregate concepts: childhood — childhood, beggarhood — poverty.
  15. Suffix -ism forms nouns from this part of speech and adjectives denoting state, position, attitude, belief, system of theories: Parkinsonism — Parkinsonism, conservatism — conservatism, Marxism — Marxism.
  16. The -ist suffix forms words that in most cases have a matching -ism noun pair.

    Semantically, this suffix denotes a person who is dealing with something: a careerist is a careerist, a fundamentalist is a fundamentalist.

  17. Suffix -ity forms nouns that denote quantity, state or quality and are mainly of Latin origin: curiosity — curiosity, profundity — depth.
  18. The -ness suffix is ​​the most productive in the English language and can be attached to almost any adjective: witness — wisdom, darkness — darkness.
  19. Suffix -ship forms nouns that denote state or position: friendship — friendship, membership — membership.

Verb → noun

-AL Refuse-refusal
-ANCE/ENCE
-ATION/TION Locate location
-SION Impress-impression
-URE Press pressure
-MENT Punish Punishment
-AGE

Source: https://chemistry-gid.ru/kapitanskaya-dochka/okonchanie-ous-v-angliiskom-yazyke-suffiksy-v-prilagatelnyh-v.html

Suffixes in English — Learn All

There can be confusion between suffixes and endings in English (both are often called word endings), besides, English terminology in this matter is slightly different from Russian. Therefore, let’s start with the basic concepts.

The ending is an inflectional morpheme. It changes the form of a word, but not its meaning, and at the same time carries a grammatical load:

  • pencil — pencils (ending indicates plural)
  • work — worked (the ending indicates the elapsed time)

The suffix, in turn, is a derivational morpheme. Suffixes in English create new words, either by changing the meaning of the original one, or by converting one part of speech to another:

  • red — reddish (red — reddish)
  • teach — teacher (teach — teacher)

There are very few endings in English — these are -s (-es), -ed and -ing. There are a lot of suffixes in English. In this article, we will consider only the most common ones.

Profession and occupation suffixes (-er, -ent, -ess)

The -er suffix is ​​perhaps the most common and productive for «doers.» With it, you can form a noun from almost any verb.

  • write> writer — write> writer
  • bake> baker — oven> baker
  • paint> painter — paint> painter

Most modern words denoting the performer of an action are formed precisely with his help. This also applies to inanimate objects.

  • printer — printer
  • scanner — scanner

Many words that come from French and Latin have the -or suffix:

  • doctor — doctor
  • tailor — tailor
  • actor — actor

The English suffix -ist often denotes an activity related to science and medicine:

  • scientist — scientist
  • dentist — dentist
  • biologist — biologist

It also denotes an adherent of any views and beliefs:

  • pacifist — pacifist
  • communist — communist
  • realist — realist

Other suffixes in English of words of Latin and Greek origin:

Suffix -ian:

  • musician — musician
  • librarian — librarian
  • mathematician — mathematician

Suffix -ent:

  • student — student
  • resident — resident, resident
  • agent — agent

Suffix -ant:

  • informant — informant
  • assistant — assistant
  • confidant — confidant

The -ess suffix is ​​one of the few «feminine» suffixes in English:

  • waitress — waitress
  • actress — actress
  • princess — princess

Process, action, phenomenon suffixes (-ment, -ion, -ism)

The suffix in English -ment is needed when forming verbal nouns and means an action or its result:

  • movement — movement
  • entertainment — entertainment
  • concealment — concealment

The -ion suffix also denotes an action, process, or result of that process:

  • revolution — revolution
  • isolation — isolation
  • restriction — restriction

The suffix -ism denotes a system of views, beliefs:

  • racism — racism
  • communism — communism
  • pacifism — pacifism

State, quality, property suffixes (-ance / -ence, -dom, -hood, -ity, -ness, -ship, -th)

The -ance / -ence suffix in a noun usually matches the -ant / -ent suffix in an adjective:

  • different — difference
  • important — importance (important — importance)
  • independent — independence

The suffixes in English -hood and -ship mean a person’s condition associated with his age, social relations, and sometimes activity; or a group of people united by this state.

  • childhood — childhood
  • motherhood — motherhood
  • priesthood — clergy
  • friendship — friendship
  • internship — internship, internship

The suffix -dom means states and properties of a broader meaning:

  • freedom — freedom
  • wisdom — wisdom
  • martyrdom — Martyrdom

The suffix in English -ness means possession of some quality and serves to form nouns from adjectives:

  • kindness — kindness
  • usefulness — usefulness
  • vastness — vastness

The -th suffix more often means physical properties:

  • strength — strength
  • length — length
  • warmth — warm

The suffix -ity means property, quality, and is common for words of Latin origin:

  • brevity — brevity
  • velocity — speed
  • purity — purity

Adjective suffixes

The suffix -ful in English means possession of quality (and is related to the adjective full — «full»):

  • beautiful — beautiful
  • useful — useful

The -less suffix is ​​opposite in meaning to the previous one and means lack of quality:

  • careless — carefree
  • harmless — harmless

The suffix -able, -ible characterizes the property or accessibility for any action:

  • edible — edible
  • portable — portable, portable
  • admirable — admirable

The suffixes -ic and -al mean «related, related»:

  • heroic — heroic
  • mythic — mythical
  • cultural — cultural
  • musical — musical

The -ous suffix also carries a characteristic:

  • dangerous — dangerous
  • nutritious — nutritious

The English suffix -ish has several meanings:

expresses similarity (in terms of appearance, behavior)

  • girlish — girlish
  • childich — childish, childish
  • foolish — stupid

weakens the meaning of an adjective

  • reddish — reddish
  • narrowish — narrowish

means nationality, language or country

  • English — English
  • Swedish — Swedish

The suffix -ive means possession of a property, the ability:

  • attractive — attractive
  • sedative — sedative

The English suffix -y is used to form many simple adjectives:

  • rainy — rainy
  • dirty — dirty
  • sunny — sunny

Vertex suffixes

Verb suffixes are not so diverse and almost all have the meaning of «doing something» or «becoming something.»

Suffix -ate

  • motivate — to motivate
  • activate — activate

Suffix -en

  • lengthen — lengthen
  • strengthen — strengthen

Suffix -ify

  • verify — confirm
  • clarify — to clarify

Suffix -ize, -ise

  • visualize — render
  • neutralize — neutralize

Adverb suffix

Adverbs are formed with just one suffix in English -ly:

  • loudly — loudly
  • beautifully — beautifully
  • politely — politely

We read further:

10 ways to tell an adjective from an adverb in English

What are the types of sentences in English

5 simple rules for word order in English

Adverb, know your place!

Source: https://skyeng.ru/articles/chto-vy-ne-znali-o-suffiksah-v-anglijskom

Formation of nouns in English: suffixes, prefixes, etc.

To do it right assignments 26 — 31 from section «Grammar and Vocabulary» on the Unified State Exam in English, You need to know the most used prefixes and suffixes of nouns. 

I want to say right away that the article will be long, so be patient and read it to the end.

Helpful advice: 

Be sure to learn all the words from this article, as they are selected from real assignments of past years, which were proposed for implementation on the exam in English.

Work separately with each block, spelling out the words, even if they seem familiar to you.

Remember that in assignments 26 — 31 along with your ability to form new words using various affixes, your spelling skills are assessed!

Education model: Verb + er = Noun

When adding a suffix — er to a verb or noun, a noun is formed, denoting a profession, occupation of a person, as well as the names of some objects:

To write — writer, to sing — singer, to drive — driver, to teach — teacher, to examine — examiner, to learn — learner, to build — builder, to loaf — loafer (quitter)

Trumpet — trumpeter (trumpeter), bank — banker (banker), finance — financier (financier)

To contain — container (container), to dust — duster (duster), to grate — grater (grater), to mix — mixer (mixer), to shake — shaker (shaker), to blend — blender (blender), to open — opener (can-opener)

Mince (minced meat) — mincer (meat grinder)

Exception:   to lie (lie) — LIAR   (liar / liar)

Education model:Verb + or = noun

When adding a suffix — or a noun denoting a profession, occupation of a person is formed to the verb (these are mainly nouns of Latin and French origin):

To act — actor (actor), to advise — advisor / —er (advisor, consultant), to animate — animator (animator), to conduct — conductor (conductor), to create — creator (creator), to decorate — decorator (decorator, painter, wallpaper passer), to direct — director (director, director), to educate — educator (teacher), to illustrate — illustrator (illustrator), to invent — inventor (inventor), to invest — investor (investor, contributor), to instruct — instructor (instructor), to translate — translator (translator), to sail — sailor (sailor), to visit — visitor (visitor), to conquer — coqueror (conqueror)

Here are some more nouns with the suffix or, to remember:

doctor, professionalor, sculptureor, sponsor, ancestor (ancestor), tutor, mentor (mentor)

Education model: Noun + ist = Noun

When adding a suffix  -ist a noun is formed to the noun, denoting a profession, occupation of a person:

art — art (artist), cello — cell (cellist), chemistry — chem (chemist, pharmacist), drama — dramat (playwright), ecology — ecolog (ecologist), economics — econom (economist), geology — geolog (geologist), genetics — genetic (geneticist), guitar — guitar (guitarist), journal — journal (journalist), medal — medal (medalist), meteorology — meteorolog (meteorologist), optimism — optim

Source: https://crownenglishclub.ru/dlya-nachinayushhih/obrazovanie-sushhestvitelnyh-v-anglijskom-yazyke-suffiksy-pristavki-i-dr.html

Plural in English — online lessons for beginners

Read the entire lesson and do a short, easy listening exercise (a translation is shown after each assignment). In the second block of the exercise, you will be asked to write the same phrases under dictation, so listen and read carefully the phrases that you compose in the first block.  

  Start exercise  

In most cases, the plural in English is formed very simply — the ending “-s» or «-Is«, which read differently depending on the consonant in front of it — voiced or voiceless:

For words ending in «s, ss, ch, tch, x» (hissing or whistling sounds), the ending «-Is«, Which reads loudly [of].

In a side-by-side exercise (see the main exercise below), an English noun is shown; to see it in the plural, just click on the word.

In the lesson exercise, beginners will be able to compose phrases on their own — click on the English words to translate the phrase proposed in Russian. A few words that we will meet in the exercise:

  • to want [that uOnt] — to want (the verb following the verb «to want» requires the use of a particle «to«- I want to help you — I want to help you) to have [tu hEv] — to have one [uan] — one

Features of the use of plural nouns

Grammatical addition: in English, the plural can be in «countable nouns«. There are a number of nouns that are used only in the singular (we emphasize, in English; the use of words in Russian and English can both coincide and diverge, but we need to get out of the habit of making comparisons with the native language, and plunge into the logic of English):

  • money [mani] — money hair [hea] — hair advice [adv] — advice

A number of other nouns are used only in the plural form:

  • glasses [glAsiz] — glassesgoods [goodz] — goods trousers [trauzez] — trousers people [people] — people (singular, but implies the plural)

A number of English nouns form the plural in a special way:

  • man — men [men] — [men] — man / men, people woman — women [umen] — [wiming] — woman / women (we prepare the organs of speech for pronouncing [y], but immediately pronounce the next sound) child — children [child] — [chIldren] — child / children

A separate lesson will be devoted to these features of the plural in English; now it is important for beginners to remember the basic rule for the formation of the plural.

Plural adjectives

Adjectives in english do not change in the plural and do not change by gender:

  • good guy [good boy] — good boy good boys [good boys] — good boys good girl [good girl] — good girl good girls [good girls] — good girls

A noun before another noun can act as an adjective; in this case, it is not used in the plural:

  • life situations — life situations

▲ Start online exercise

Next: Articles A, AN, THE and a bit of TO. • Tutor: preparation for the exam and exam, passing international exams.
«My day» / «Working day» / «My day off»
TEST elementary / intermediate

Source: http://english.prolingvo.info/beginner/plural.php

Suffixes in English — how to spell English suffixes correctly? — SPEAK ENGLISH

English suffixes, like Russian ones, are the elements of a word following the root. They help us form new words. Some suffixes change the part of speech, for example, turning a verb into a noun. You should also not forget about those suffixes that, changing the form of a word, do not affect its very meaning.

If you have at least a little understanding of the suffixes table in English, then any word-formation «delights» in English will seem like child’s play.

Moreover, having understood the principles of constructing new words using prefixes and suffixes (by the way, prefixes are significantly inferior to suffixes in terms of flexibility and prevalence), a language learner can easily translate masculine nouns into feminine ones, form a nationality or profession.

It turns out that it is not at all necessary to set records for the number of words learned. Indeed, in English, as in Russian, there is the concept of «single-root words» that differ from each other only by suffixes and prefixes. Therefore, knowing, for example, the meaning of the verb paint (to paint, to paint), you will easily understand that a painter is an artist.

Word-building and form-building suffixes: differences

Some English suffixes are considered by Russian speakers as endings. For example, some English textbooks call the suffix -ed an ending. All Suffixes in English are divided into two large groups: form-building and word-building. Thanks to the first, the word does not change its meaning, only the form changes. Compare short and shorter.

Word-forming suffixes in English form a new word with a different meaning, albeit often similar to the meaning of the original word. For example, neighbor is a neighborhood.

Shaping suffixes in english

So, in English, unlike Russian, one word can take not so many forms. This is due to the fact that in English many grammatical meanings of a word, such as gender, verb tense, etc., are expressed not by the word itself, but by various auxiliary elements (articles, auxiliary verbs, etc.).

In Russian, an adjective alone (depending on case, number, gender) can have more than 20 forms. For example, beloved — beloved — beloved — beloved, etc. In English, the adjective favorite (beloved) may not change at all, but we can guess about its exact form from the context (environment): This is my favorite book (This is my favorite book) ).

— He is my favorite writer.

However, in some cases, English words do change shape. And for this, there are five formative suffixes in English that are important to remember: -ed, -est, -ing, -s (-es), -er.

Now it’s worth understanding English words that can take different forms. So, the English suffix -ed is needed in order to form the second and third forms of the regular verb. For example, finish is finished.

The suffixes -er and -est in English are used to form comparative forms of adjectives. We use these suffixes with short adjectives like close (close), big (big), etc. The suffix -er is used for the comparative form, and -est for the excellent one. For example, close — closer — closest.

Among English suffixes, -s and -es are widespread.

They apply in the following cases:

Source: https://ekaterina-alexeeva.ru/nachinayushhim/suffiksy-v-anglijskom-yazyke-kak-pravilno-pisat-anglijskie-suffiksy.html

Word formation. Noun suffixes in English (grade 9)

This is a lesson from the cycle «Word formation in English»  and in it we will consider the common noun suffixes: -er / or, -tion, -ing, -ness, -ence / ance (5). Exercises on word formation of a noun will help you understand how nouns are formed in English using suffixes, as well as prepare for English exams in the form of the OGE and USE.

for posting on other Internet resources is prohibited. EnglishInn.ru.

Basic noun suffixes in English (grade 9)

Remember 5 main noun suffixes. 

  1. er / or (worker)
  2. tion (informaproduction)
  3. ing (reading)
  4. ness (happyness)
  5. ence / ance (difference)

Next, let’s dwell in more detail on each of them.

1. Suffixes of nouns formed from a verb

  1. -er / or (doer suffix) dance — dancer work — workercollect — collector

    invent — inventor

  2. -tion (process suffix) collect — collection

    invent — invention

  3. -ingsuffer — suffering warn — warning

    mean — meaning

Remember three suffixes -er (-or), -tion, -ing, with the help of which nouns are formed from the verb.

2. Suffixes of nouns formed from an adjective

  1. -nessill — illness

    kind — kindness

  2. -ance / -ence (corresponding adjectives have suffixes: -ant / -ent) important — importance

    different — difference

Remember two suffixes: -ness, -ence (ance), with the help of which nouns are formed from an adjective.

Suffixes of nouns in English. Exercises

 Suffixes -ness & -tion Are the most common noun suffixes.
Exercise 1. Suffix -ness. Translate these nouns and indicate the adjectives from which they are derived.

foolishness, happiness, seriousness, illness, readiness, richness, strangeness, carelessness, whiteness, cleverness, greatness, brightness

Note.

Source: http://englishinn.ru/slovoobrazovanie-suffiksyi-sushhestvitelnyih-v-angliy.html

Methods of forming nouns in English

How to replenish vocabulary more than 3 times without memorizing? Adopt this method and — voila! Vocabulary enlarged before our eyes.
This method is word formation. How does this work for nouns?

Briefly — about the main thing Usually the topic is studied indefinitely. There is a more effective method: covering the entire «puzzle» at a time. Seeing a clear picture, you can easily refine the little things without negativity.

So, the formation of nouns in English assumes skills:

  1. convert a noun from a verb and vice versa;
  2. use affixes;
  3. put a different emphasis;
  4. replace the consonant at the root;
  5. form compound words.

Many do not assume how many words they ALREADY know. They simply do not know how to use this wealth competently.
Having learned 5 skills, you can refer to the dictionary just to check it.

1. Conversion

Nouns in English are related to verbs in an interesting way: they can be the same word. This method is called  conversion… This is the first skill. Using it, it is easy to guess about the translation of 60% of English words. Moreover, verbs can be converted not only into nouns, but also into adjectives.

The examples below will help you understand the phenomenon of conversion.

Example: love = to love / love.  

Verb convergent word noun

dream, dream dream dream
call name name, title
lift up lift lift, lift
to send email mail
milk milk milk
pour water water
mind mind mind, opinion

Many are embarrassed that in translation into Russian, both words are not the same root. But the language is different.
It’s funny, but the British created it for themselves! For native speakers, these are absolutely identical words: to milk — milk (milk), to name — name (name — name).

2. Affixation

This «scary» word means suffixes plus prefixes. All prefixes are of two types: negative and significant.
Acquaintance with negative ones has already taken place through borrowing: dysfunction, antispam, deflation. Significant — different in meaning, but amenable to logic.

Prefixes

2 groups of prefixes will allow you to find the meaning of a word by context without a dictionary. If you learn the meaning of each prefix separately, the brain starts to panic, it looks for the right algorithm. It takes time, and speech slows down.

And most importantly, the desire to study the language at all disappears.

Example: everyone knows the prefixes «dis-«, «de-«, «anti-«. But for some reason they do not notice them in English!
An important detail: most negative prefixes of nouns work with verbs.  

Negative prefixes

Console Examples
anti- Antistress, antipode, antispam.
dis- Disharmony, disqualification.
de- Depiction, departure.
mis- Misfortune, misunderstanding.
as- Sedition, separation.
not- Nonconformist, nonstop.

Significant prefixes

Most are present in their native language, in borrowings.

You can check the skill of forming nouns in English using a dictionary, but after an independent attempt.
For example, form words: disqualification, pseudoscience, professional, extraordinary, hyperactive, and others. Such training is enjoyable and helps to understand the language.

Attachment type Examples of prefixes
involvement Anti-, co-, con-, contra-, vice-.
censures

Source: https://www.study.ru/courses/elementary/obrazovanie-sushchestvitelnyh

Plural of Nouns

In English, everything countable nouns * used both in the singular and in the plural.

* Countable Nouns denote items that can be counted (one, two, three, four, five, etc.): one apple, two apples, three apples; one story, two stories, three stories.

Countable and uncountable nouns

The main way of forming the plural

In English, the plural of nouns is formed by attaching an ending -s (-es) to a noun in the singular:

a pen — pens (handle — handles)

a book — books (book — books)

a box — boxes (box — boxes)

Features of attaching the ending -s (-es)

If a noun ends in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, -z, -x, then the ending is added -Is:

a bus — buses (bus — buses)
a glass — glasses (glass — glasses)
a bush — bushes (bush — bushes)
a bench — benches (bench — benches)
a match — Played (match — matches)
a fox — foxes (fox — foxes)

If a noun ends in consonant + y, then -y changes to i, and added -Is:

a baby — babies (baby — babies)
a story — stories (story — stories)
a city — cities (city — cities)

If a noun ends in vowel + y, then the ending is simply added -s:

a toy — toys (toy — toys)
a tray — trays (tray — trays)
a monkey — m (monkey — monkeys)

If a noun ends in -f or -faiththen -f changes to -v, and added -Is:

a leaf — leaves (leaf — leaves)
a thief — thieves (thief — thieves)
a wife — wives (wife — wives)
a knife — knives (knife — knives)

But in some cases, nouns ending in -f, the ending is simply added -s:

a roof — roofs (roof — roofs)
a cliff — cliffs (rock — rocks)
a chief — chiefs (leader — leaders)
a dwarf — dwarfs (gnome — gnomes)

If a noun ends in -o, then the ending is added -Is:

a tomato — tomatoes (tomato — tomatoes)
a hero — heroes (hero — heroes)

In some cases, for nouns ending in -o, the ending is added -s:

a photo — beautiful photos (photography — photographs)
a kilo — kilos (kilogram — kilograms)
a piano — pianos (piano — multiple pianos)
a radio — radios (radio — multiple radio)
a video — videos (video — several videos)
a studio — (studio — studios)

There are also nouns on -o, the plural of which can be formed by adding -s or -Is, while the -es form is used more often:

a memento — mementoes / mements (souvenir — souvenirs)
a mosquito — mosquitoes / Mosquitoes (mosquito — mosquitoes)
a tornado — tornadoes / torandos (hurricane — hurricanes)
a volcano — volcanoes / volcanoes (volcano — volcanoes)
a zero — zeoroes / zeroes (zero — zeros)

Special plural forms of nouns

There are nouns in English, the plural of which must be remembered:

a man [mæn] — men (man — men)
a woman [ˈwʊmən] — women [ˈWɪmɪn] (woman — women)
a child [tʃaɪld] — children [ˈTʃɪl.

drən] (child — children)
a tooth [tuːθ] — teeth [tiːθ] (tooth — teeth)
a foot [fʊt] — feet [fiːt] (foot — feet)
a mouse [maʊs] — mice [maɪs] (mouse — mice)
a goose [ɡuːs] — geese [ɡiːs] (goose — geese)
a louse [laʊs] — face [laɪs] (louse — lice)
an ox [ɒks] — oxen [ˈⱰksn] (bull — bulls)

Remember also nouns in which the plural form coincides with the singular form:

one deer — two deer (one deer — two deer)
one fish — two fish (one fish — two fish)
one sheep — two sheep (one ram — two rams)
one series — two series (one episode — two episodes)
one species — two species (one kind — two kinds)
one aircraft — two aircraft (one plane — two planes)
one spacecraft — two spacecraft (one spaceship — two spaceships)
one salmon — two salmon (one salmon — two salmon)
one cod — two code (one cod — two cod)
one moose — two mosses (one moose — two moose)
one means — two means (one remedy — two remedies)
one offspring — two Offspring (one offspring — two offspring)

 Please note that the same noun can be either countable or uncountable, depending on its lexical meaning. For example, salmon (salmon) in the meaning of «kind of fish» is a countable noun, therefore, has the plural form:

I was very excited when I caught a salmon… — I was delighted when I caught the salmon.
I was very excited when I caught two salmon… — I was delighted when I caught two salmon.

Source: https://myefe.ru/reference/nouns/plurals

Adverb in English

An adverb is a word that defines the meaning of a verb, adjective, other adverb, or noun phrase. Most adverbs are formed by adding the suffix –ly to the adjective.

Rules for the formation of adverbs in English

1. To form an adverb in English from an adjective that ends in — l, you need to add the suffix –ly.
Example: careful-carefully.

2.Adjectives ending in — y, when forming an adverb in English, take the suffix — ily.
Will take: lucky-luckily.

3. The suffix Ble is changed to bly.
Example: responsible-responsibly.

Mode of action adverb

The adverb of the mode of action characterizes the verb. It describes the way in which an action is performed.

Example: She did the work carefully. Carefully characterizes the verb to describe the quality of the action.

Adverb of place or location

The adverb of place indicates where the action takes place.

Example: They live locally. (She lives in this area.)

Adverb of time

The adverb of time indicates when an action is performed or its duration, or how often this action is performed.

Example:

— He did it yesterday. (When) — He did it yesterday. (When)

— They are permanently busy. (Duration) — They are constantly busy. (Duration)

— She never does it. (Frequency) — She never does that. (How often)

Adverb of Degree in English

The degree adverb increases or decreases the effect of the verb.

Example: I completely agree with you. (I totally agree with you.) This increases the effect of the verb, while the adverb `partially` decreases it.

Adverbs characterizing adjectives

An adjective can be defined by an adverb. It usually comes before the adjective, with the exception of the adverb enough, which follows it.

Example:

— That`s really good. (This is really good.)

— It was a terribly difficult time for all of us. (It was a terribly difficult time for all of us.)

— It wasn`t good enough. (It wasn’t good enough.) The word enough follows the adjective.

Adverbs characterizing adverbs

An adverb can define another adverb. As with adjectives, the adverb comes before the adverb it defines, while enough is the exception.

Example:

— She did it really well. (She did it very well.)

— He didn`t come last night, funnily enough. (He didn’t show up last night, which is funny enough.)

Noun adverb

An adverb can characterize a noun to indicate a time or place.

Example:

— The concert tomorrow. (Tomorrow’s concert)

Source: http://www.the-world.ru/narechie

Ways of word formation in English

Learning English vocabulary is much easier if you understand how words are formed and what parts they consist of. Today we will look at the main ways of word formation in English. By understanding the basic principles and ways of forming words, you will not get lost in all the variety of English vocabulary.

1. Affixation

Affixation Is the formation of new words by adding prefixes and suffixes. In linguistics, prefixes and suffixes are called affixes, which is why this method of word formation bears this name. Affixation is the most common way to create new words.

Depending on what exactly is added to the word stem (prefix or suffix), prefix and suffix are distinguished. If both are added, then the method of formation is prefix-suffix.

The advantage of affixing is that suffixes and prefixes give us a lot of information about a word.

Suffixes indicate part of speech. If you carefully analyze English words, then you probably noticed that there are special suffixes for nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, thanks to which you immediately determine which part of speech is in front of you. In addition, suffixes can give additional meanings to words. In this article, I will not dwell on the meanings of all suffixes, but I will give a few examples of how suffixes work in English:

teacher — suffix –Er indicates that the word is a noun, and also that it is the name of a profession or occupation

Beautiful — suffix –Ful indicates that the word is an adjective

Lucky — suffix –Ate also adjective suffix

fortunately — suffix –Ly indicates that the word is an adverb

information — suffix –Ation indicates that the word is a noun

informative — suffix –Ive indicates that this is an adjective

informatively — suffix –Ly indicates that the word is an adverb

stability — suffix –Ity indicates that the word is a noun

stabilizes — suffix –Ise indicates that we have a verb

Please note that not one, but two suffixes can be added to the stem, as, for example, when forming an adverb from an adjective that already has a suffix.

As for the prefixes, they do not change the part of speech, but affect the meaning of the word. For example, they make the word negative:

dishonest — dishonest

irrational — irrational

unimportant — unimportant

In addition to changing the sign from plus to minus, prefixes can give words a variety of shades of meaning. There are a lot of prefixes in English, each of them can be devoted to a separate article. Here I will give just a few examples to illustrate how the set-top boxes work:

prehistoric — prehistoric

overeat Overeat

replace — move

international — international

Knowing the meanings of prefixes and suffixes, you can increase your active and passive vocabulary. Firstly, you will be able to independently form new parts of speech, and change the meanings of words. And secondly, you will easily guess what the new words that you come across mean.

2. Composition

There are many so-called compounds in the English language. These words are formed by the fusion of two stems. A word constructed in this way takes on a new meaning. Many verbs, nouns, adjectives are formed by word composition:

hair + to cut = the haircut — a haircut

driving + license = a driving license — rights

baby + to sit = to babysit — look after the child

brain + to wash = to brainwash — brainwash

well + dressed = well-dressed — well dressed

green + eye = green-eyed — green-eyed

Some adverbs and pronouns are also formed in this way:

every + where = everywhere — everywhere, everywhere

any + time = anytime — Anytime

some+body= somebody — somebody

3. Conversion

Sometimes you know a word and you know it’s a verb. And suddenly you meet him again — and it is a noun. This is how it works conversion — the transition of a word from one part of speech to another. In this case, the spelling and pronunciation of the word does not change. This can be confusing, but the good news is that, although the meaning of a word changes with the transition, it still often remains close to the original word.

There are different types of conversion. The most common of these is the transition from noun to verb and from verb to noun:

an email — to email a host — to host a name — to name to call — a call to visit — a visit (to visit — visit)

to date — a date (to date — the one with whom you are dating: a guy or a girl)

Adjectives can be converted to verbs and nouns:

to empty — empty dry — to dry clean — to clean final — a final

rich — the rich

4. Changing stress

To my surprise, many have never heard of this word formation method and confuse it with conversion. Although some linguists consider it as an example of conversion, in order to avoid mistakes, it is more expedient to consider it separately.

When we perceive a word in a text, at first glance it seems that it simply «passed» into another part of speech, because it is written in the same way as the corresponding verb or noun.

However, not all so simple. Some words do not just convert, but also change the stress! Surprised? Let’s look at some examples, you may have mispronounced many of them:

to permit

Source: https://enginform.com/article/slovoobrazovanie-v-angliyskom

It’s
a process of creating new words from material available in the
language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and
pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes.

2 Types of word formation:

1)
Compounding (словосложение)

2)
Word – derivation

Within
the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming
words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation
and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways
of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are
traditionally referred to formation.

Different types of word
formation:

Affixation
is
the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to
stemsbasis.

Affixes may be grouped

1) according to their
linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full,
less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm);

2) according to the parts of
speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming
affixes;

3)
according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality,
negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood
originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full –
полный
(adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of
speech: critic (al).

All
suffixes are divided into lexical
and grammatical
.

Lexical
suffixes build new word. Productive
affixes.
For
ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor.

Grammatical
suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create
neologisms and nonce-words (I
don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish)
.

For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses.

Some
productive suffixes:

Noun
forming – er,
ing, is, ist, ance

Adj
– forming – y,
ish, ed, able, less

Adv
– forming – ly

Verb – forming — Ize, /ise,
ate

Prefixies

Un, die, re

Conversion
(zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV &
referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of
2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a
meaning which differs from that of original one though it can ><
be associated with it. nurse
(noun) to nurse – to feed

A certain stem is used for the
formation of a categorically different word without a derivative
element being added.

Bag
– to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle
This
specific pattern is very productive in English

The
most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To
take off – a take off

Conversion
can be total
or partial
.
Partial: the then
president (тогдашний).
An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context.
Total: work
– to work

Conversion
may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical
changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun
of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the
verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had
personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’
with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal
and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g.
love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to
drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided
as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings,
simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms
(e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.).

The
two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion
are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous
amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to
hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf,
to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor,
to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon,

and very many others.

Nouns
are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This
is the queerest do I»ve ever come across
.
Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He
has still plenty of go at his age.

Go — energy), make,
run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move
,
etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to
pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough

(e. g. We
decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm
),
etc.

Other
parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the
following examples show: to
down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from
Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the
like of me and the like of you).

Compounding
& word comparison.
Compound
words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW:
neutral,
morphological &syntactic
.

In
neutral
compound
the process is released without any linking elements sunflower.
There
are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound
consist of a simple affixes stems.

Derivate/
derivational compound

— has affixes babysitter.

Contracted

has a shorten stems. TV-set

Morphological
C

few
in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2
stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon,
statesman, craftsmanship.

Syntactic
C
– formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions,
adverbs. Mother-in-law

Reduplication.
New
word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye
or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong

Shortening.
There
are 2 ways of producing them:

1.
The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in
term may loose its beginning –phone,
its ending vac
(vacation)
or
both
fridge.

2.
The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB,
bf – boyfriend. Acronyms
are
shorten words but read as one UNO
[ju:nou]

TYPES OF WF

Sound
imitation –
words
are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced
by animals, birds…bark
лаять,
mew –
мяукатьsome
names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo
кукушка,
crow –
ворона.

To
glide, to slip
are
supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a
slippery surface.

Back
formation
a
verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание)
bagger
– to bag, babysitter – to babysit

Blending
Is
blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word),
combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element.
Smoke
+ fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze
(
дымка)


addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of
two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog
→ smoke & fog


blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive
phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second.
Positron
– positive electron,

Medicare
– medical care

Borrowings.
Contemporary
English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This
mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary.
In the comparison with other languages English possesses great
richness of vocabulary.

All languages are mixtures to
a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is
unique in this respect.

A brief look on various
historical strata of the English vocabulary:

1) through cultural contacts
with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the
influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words
entered the language.

Their origin is no longer felt
by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard,
school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel,
bishop.

The
same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10th
century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.

It
means that their frequency is very high. They,
their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take…
They
partly supersede the number of OE words OE
heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take

Steorfan – die

A
more radical change & profound influence on the English
vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15th
cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to
the areas of court,
church, law, state.

Virtue, religion,
parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour…

The
influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15th
cent., but continued up to the 17th
cent.

Many French borrowings
retained their original pronunciation & stress

Champagne,
ballet, machine, garage…

Separate, attitude,
constitute, introduce…

Adjectives in English –
arrogant, important, patient

Sometimes with their
derivatives:

Demonstrative –
demonstration

Separate – separation

17-18 cc. due to the
establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed
from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian:
libretto,
violin, opera

Spanish:
hurricane, tomato, tobacco

Dutch:
yacht,
dog, landscape

French:
bouquet,
buffet

From the point of view of
their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic
origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon.

Nowadays many Americanisms
become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the
influence of broadcast media.

Even
in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage”
instead of “luggage”

The present day English
vocabulary is from being homogeneous.

6.
Neologisms
new
word expressions are created for new things irrespective of their
scale of importance. They may be all important and concern some
social relationships (new form/ state)
People’s republic.
Or
smth threatening the very existence of humanity nuclear
war

or the thing may be short lived. N
is
a newly coined word, phrase/ a new meaning for an existing word / a
word borrowed from another language.

The
development of science and industry technology: black
hole, internet, supermarket.

The
adaptive lexical system isn’t only adding new units but readjust
the ways & means of word formation radio
detection and ranging – RADAR

The
lex. System may adopt itself by combining several word-building
processes face-out
(noun) – the radioactive dust descending through the air after an
anatomic explosion.
This
word was coined by composition/ compounding & conversion.

Teach
–in (n) –a student conference/ series of seminars on some burning
issue of the day, meaning some demonstration on protest.
This
pattern is very frequent lis–in
, due-in

means protest demonstration when fluking traffic. Bionies
the
combination of bio & electron.

Back
formation:

air-condion
– air-conditioner – air-conditioning

Semi-affixes
(могут
быть
как
самостоятельные
слова)
chairman
used
to be not numerous and might be treated as exceptions now, evolving
into separate set.

Some
N abscessed with smth and containing the elements mad
& happy: powermad, moneymad, auto-happy.

Conversion, composition,
semantic change are in constant use when coining N

The
change of meaning rather an introduction of a new additional meaning
may be illustrated by the word NETWORK
– stations for simultaneous broadcast of the same program.

Once
accepted N may become a basis for further word formation. ZIP
– to zip – zipper

zippy.

The
lex. System is unadaptive system, developing for many centuries and
reflecting the changing needs, servicing only in special context.
Archaism
& historisms.

Archaism

once common but are now replaced by synonyms. Mostly they are poetic:
morn
– arch, morning – new word, hapless – arch, unlucky – modern.

Historism
when
the causes of the word’s disappearance are extralinguistic, eg. The
thing named is no longer used. They are very numerous as names for
social relations, institutions, objects of material culture of the
past, eg. many types of sailing craft belong to the past: caravels,
galleons.
A
great many of
H

denotes various types of weapons in historical novels: blunderbuss
мушкетер,
breastplate.
Many
of them are in Voc in some figurative meaning: shiel
щит,
sword. –
меч.

7.
Homonymy.
Different
in meaning, but identical in sound or spelling form

Sources:

1.
The result of split of polysemy capital
столица,
заглавная
буква

Homonymy
differs from polysemy because there is no semantic bond (связь)
between homonyms; it has been lost & doesn’t exist.

2.
as the result of leveling of grammar in flections, when different
parts of speech become identical in their forms. Care
(in OE) — caru(n), care (OE) – carian (v)

3.
By conversion
slim – to slim, water – to water

4.
With the help of the same suffix fro the same stem. Reader
– the person who reads/a book for reading.

5.
Accidentally. Native words can coincide in their form beran
– to bear, bera (animal) – to bear

6.
Shortening of different words. Cab
(cabriolet, cabbage, cabin)

Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:

1.
Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical)
bat – bat

flying
animal (
летучая
мышь)
— cricket bat (
бита,
back — part of body, away from the front, go to back

2.
Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling)
flower – flour, sole – soul, rain – reign, bye-by-buy

3.
Homographs (the same spelling)
tear [iə] – tear [εə, lead [i:] – lead [e]

Homonyms in English are very
numerous. Oxford English Dictionary registers 2540 homonyms, of which
89% are monosyllabic words and 9,1% are two-syllable words.

So,
most homonyms are monosyllabic words. The trend towards
monosyllabism, greatly increased by the loss of inflections and
shortening, must have contributed much toward increasing the number
of homonyms in English.

Among the other ways of
creating homonyms the following processes must be mentioned:

From
the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into
historical and etymological. Historical
homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy;
then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate
words. Etymo1ogiсal
homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in
sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).

Borrowed
and native words can coincide in form, thus producing homonyms (as in
the above given examples). In other cases homonyms are a result of
borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or
spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim — «wrong», «an immoral
habit» has given the English vice — вада
«evil conduct»; the Latin vitis -«spiral» has
given the English »vice» — тиски
«apparatus with strong jaws in which things can be hold
tightly»; the Latin vice — «instead of», «in
place of» will be found in vice — president.

8.
Synonymy.

A
synonym – a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more
words in the same language. All languages contain synonyms but in
English they exist in superabundance. There no two absolutely
identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of an
occurrence are different. Senses of synonyms are identical in respect
of central semantic trades (denotational meaning) but differ in
respect of minor semantic trades (connotational). In each group of S
there’s a word with the most general meaning, with can substitute
any word of the group. TO
LOOK AT — to glance – to stare

Classification:

Weather the different in
denotational/ connotational component

1.
Ideographic
synonyms
. They
bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content,
different shades of meaning or degree. BEAUTIFUL
– fine, handsome – pretty
,
to
ascent – to mount – to climb.

2.
Stylistic
synonyms.
Different
in emotive and stylistic sphere.

child

girl

happiness

Infant

maid

bliss

Kid

neutral

elevated

colloquial

To
die

To
kick the bucket

Eat
— Devour (
degradation),
Face
muzzle
(
морда)

Synonymic condensation is
typical of the English language.

It
refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several
words with one & the same meaning to add more conviction, to
description more vivid. Ex.:
Lord & master, First & foremost, Safe & secure,
Stress & strain, by force & violence

Among
synonyms there’s a special group of words –
euphemism
used
to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words. Drunk
– marry

According to interchangability
context S are classified

3.
Total
synonyms

An extremely rare occurrence. Ulman: “a luxury that language
can hardly afford.” M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in
the language (words should be synonyms, were synonyms in the past
usually acquire different meanings and are no longer
interchangeable). Ex.: fatherland
— motherland

4.
Contextual
synonyms
.
Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress
other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become
synonyms in a certain context. Ex.: tasteless
– dull, Active – curious, Curious – responsive

Synonyms can reflect social
conventions.

Ex.:

clever

bright

brainy

intelligent

Dever-clever

neutral

Only speaking about younger
people by older people

Is not used by the higher
educated people

Positive connotation

Stylistically

remarked

5.
Dialectical
synonyms
.
Ex.:
lift – elevator, Queue – line, autumn – fall

6.
Relative
some
authors classify group like:
like – love – adore, famous- celebrated – eminent
they
denote different degree of the same notion or different shades of
meanings and can be substituted only in some context.

Antonymy.
Words
belonging to the same part of speech identical in speech expressing
contrary or contradictory notion.

Комиссаров
В.Н.
classify them into absolute/
root
(late/early)they
have different roots
,
derivational
(to
please-to
displease)
the
same root but different affixes. In most cases “-“ prefixes from
antonyms an,
dis, non.

Sometimes they are formed by suffixes full
& less
.
But they do not always substitute each other selfless
– selfish, successful – unsuccessful
.the
same with “-“ prefixes
to appoint – to disappoint.

The
difference is not only in structure but in semantic. The DA
express
contradictory notions, one of then excludes the other active
– inactive.
The
AA
express
contrary notion: ugly

plain – good-looking – pretty –

beautiful

Antonimy
is
distinguished from complementarily
by being based on different logical relationshipd for pairs of
antonyms like
good – bad, big – small
.
He
is good (not bad). He is not good (doesn’t imply he is bad)
.
The negation (отрицание)
of one term doesn’t implies the assertion of the other.

John
Lines suggests proper
hot-warm
– tapped – cold
&
complementary antonyms
only
2 words negative and assertion not
male — female
.

There’s
also one type of semantic opposition conversives
words
denote one reference as viewed from different points of view that of
the subject & that of the object.
Bye
– sell, give — receive

Conversness
is
minor image relations of functions husband
– wife, pupil – teacher, above – below, before — after

9.
Phraseology.

Phrasiological units/ idioms – motivated word group. They are
reproduced as readymade units. Express a singe notion, used in
sentence as one part of it.

Idiomaticy

PU when the meaning of the whole
is
not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts. Stability
of PU implies that it exist as a readymade linguistic unit, which
doesn’t allow of any variability of its lexical component of gr.
Structure.

In
ling. literature the term
Phraseology
is
used for the expressions where the meaning of one element is depended
on the other. Vinogradov: “irrespective of structure and properties
of the units”. Smernitsky: “it denotes only such set expressions
which do not possess expressiveness or emotional coloring”. Arnold:
“it says that only denotes such set expressions that are
imaginative, expressive and emotional”. Ammosova call them fixed
context units –
we
can’t substitute an element without changing the meaning of the
whole. Ahmanova insists on the semantic intearity of such phrases:
“prevailing over the structural separates of their element”.
Kuning lays stress on the structural separatness of the elements in
the PU on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its
elements taken separately with its elements and on a certain minimum
stability.

Phraseology
(Webster’s
dictionary) mode of expression peculiarities of diction. That is
choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some
author.there are difficult terms. Idioms word equivalents & these
difficult units or terminology reflects certain differences in the
main criteria used to distinguish.

The
features:
1.
lack of semantic motivation 2. Lexical & grammatical stability

Semantic
classification:
2
criteria: 1). The degree of semantic isolation 2). The degree of
disinformation

1.
Opaque in meaning (трудный
для
понимания)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to
produce the meaning of the whole.to
kick the bucket = to die
It
contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression.The
degree of semantic isolation is the highest.

The 3 typesof PU:

1.
Phraseological fusions. The degree of motivation is very low. one
component preserves its direct meaning Ex.:
to pass the buck = to pass responsibility –
свалить
ответственность,

2.
Phraseological unities. Clearly motivated. Transparent both
components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires
figurative sense to
see the light = to understand, old salt —
морской
волк

3.
Phraseological combinations. There is a component used in its
direct meaning. There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying). To
be good at smth.
:
Curiosity
killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back

Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:How
do you do?Good-bye (God be with you) How about a drink?

Structural classification
of PU

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked
out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them
with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with
derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He
points out two-top units which he compares with compound words
because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among
one-top units he

points out three structural types;

a)
units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to
art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to
sandwich in etc.;

b)
units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the
Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions
with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions
«by» or «with», e.g. to
be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc
.
There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of
the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc.
The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be
used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the
nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In
these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component
is the semantic centre;

c)
Prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are
equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic
centre is the nominal part, e.g.
On the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course
of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of

etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g.
tomorrow,
instead etc.

Among
two-top units

A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such
as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck
and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be
partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms)
sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other
cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many
cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed
of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological
units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under
the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the
semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall
in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic
centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly
idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s
feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.

Very close to such units are
word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These
units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special
syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.

c) phraseological repetitions,
such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc.
Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and
forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and
ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means
of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives
and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly
idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter
(perfectly).

Phraseological units the same
as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound
words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock,
stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own
sweet will.

Syntactical classification
of PU

Phraseological
units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was
suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms
denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train,
latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,

b) verb phraseologisms
denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to
get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to
make headlines,

c) adjective phraseologisms
denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead ,

d) adverb phraseological
units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog
with two tails,

e) preposition phraseological
units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,

f) interjection phraseological
units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s
classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings
and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him
tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too
many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule
non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».

Словообразование в английском языке (Word For­ma­tion) — это формирование новых слов с помощью приставок, суффиксов, сложения основ и прочих способов. Если вы понимаете, как организовано словообразование в английском языке, осознаете значение ключевых приставок и суффиксов, вам будет гораздо проще набирать словарный запас, читать, понимать английский speech, потому что смысл большого количества слов вы будете узнавать без словаря.

Словообразование в английском языке

Содержание

  1. Как изучать словообразование в английском языке
  2. Способы словообразования в английском языке
  3. Словосложение
  4. Конверсия
  5. Аффиксация
  6. Английские префиксы
  7. Словообразование в английском языке — таблица Суффиксов
  8. Суффиксы существительных
  9. Существительные, обозначающие лица
  10. Отвлеченные существительные
  11. Суффиксы прилагательных
  12. Суффиксы глаголов

Как изучать словообразование в английском языке

Приставки и суффиксы (совместно их именуют “аффиксы”) — это не тот вариант, когда необходимо браться за учебники, зубрить правила, решать примеры одно за другим. Вполне хватает просто ознакомиться со значением основных приставок и суффиксов, посмотреть примеры.

В этом вам посодействуют таблицы и интеллект-карты (рисунки-конспекты) ниже. В таблицах открывается значение приставок и суффиксов (насколько это допускается), примеры слов, а интеллект-карты — это подобие конспекта, шпаргалки, изготовленных на основе таблиц.

Ознакомившись с материалами, вы заметите, что многие аффиксы подобны русским и порой имеют схожий смысл. Ничего необычного, ведь они прибыли в английский, русский и остальные языки из латинского и греческого, преимущественно это касается аффиксов с научным тоном: deac­ti­vate — деактивировать, antivirus — антивирус, coun­ter­bal­ance — противовес, ide­al­ism — идеализм. При помощи этой сохранившейся связи между языками, словообразование в английском языке осуществляется без особых проблем.

Способы словообразования в английском языке

  • Сложение слов — в случае, когда из двух и свыше независимых слов путем сложения формируются новые фразы: fire­man, foot­ball-play­er. Вдобавок новые выражения могут писаться слитно (police­man, note­book, girl­friend), через дефис (copybook, cin­e­magoer, mood-) или по отдельности (wood wall, med­i­cine brigade, mar­ket place). В подобных mak­er случаях смысл слова можно разгадать без труда: leather кожа + coat пальто = leather­coat “дублёнка” (кожанное пальто), col­or — краска +book — книга = col­or­ingbook — раскраска (книжка-раскраска), well — хорошо + paу — платить = well-paid — хорошо финансируемый и т.д.
  • Конверсия — когда слово без модификаций делается иной частью речи, к примеру, fish — рыба — to fish — рыбачить, win­ter зима — to win­ter — зимовать, flower — цветок — to flower — цвести.
  • Трансформация слова с помощью приставки (префикса) или суффикса. В случае, если вы будете понимать значение основных приставок и суффиксов, вы свободно сможете “идентифицировать” слово по известному корню.

Способы образования слов в английском языке

Словосложение

Это формирование нового слова из 2‑ух и свыше слов. В русском языке при сочетании двух слов в одно употребляется соединительная гласная о или е (домосед, стихоплет, птицелов). В английском языке пара слов объединяются друг с другом напрямую, притом ударение обычно падает на первое слово.

Например

fire­man [ˈfaɪərmən— fire (огонь) + man (человек) = пожарник

any­thing [ɛnɪθɪŋ] — any (любой) + thing (вещь) = что-нибудь

to brain­wash [ˈbreɪnwɔːʃ] — brain (мозг) + wash (мыть) = промывать мозги.

Примечание

Сложные слова как правило пишутся неразделимо, но порой через дефис, к примеру: green + eye = green-eyed – зеленоглазый.

Конверсия

Это такой прием формирования новых слов, по которому от одной части речи образовывается другая без каких-либо модификаций во внешней форме слова. Самой популярной моделью конверсии считается: существительное -> глагол, к примеру: love — любовь -> to love — любить, work — работа -> to work — работать.

При конверсии 2‑ух- и многосложных существительных, имеющих ударение на первом или втором слоге, в глаголах ударение переносится на последний слог.

Например:

Ham­mer [ˈhæmərмолоток —> to Ham­mer[hæˈmər:tзабивать

access (доступ) → to access (иметь доступ)

Популярным случаем конверсии считается трансформация прилагательного в существительное.

Например:

inter­na­tion­al международный —> the Inter­na­tion­al [,ıntə(:)‘næʃənlИнтернационал

intel­lec­tu­al интеллектуальный —> an intel­lec­tu­al [,ıntı’lek­tjʋəl] интеллектуал

Способы образования слов в английском языке

Аффиксация

Довольно часто слова формируются с помощью присоединение приставок и суффиксов (совместно их именуют аффиксами).

  • Приставки (префиксы) меняют значение слов, но само по себе слово в то же время не превращается в другую часть речи. Зная самые употребляемые приставки, вы сумеете угадывать смысл сформированных с их поддержкой слов, если, конечно, знаете начальное слово.
  • Суффиксы используются для формирования одной части речи из другой. Понимая какие суффиксы для какой речи свойственны, вы будете свободно понимать, какая перед вами часть речи, следовательно, это упростит понимание слова.

Английские префиксы

  • Un- / im- / ir- / il- / dis- / in— — отрицательные префиксы. С их поддержкой формируются слова, полярные по значению: lucky удачный — unlucky неудачный, make делать — unmake разрушать, уничтожать (сделанное), usu­al обычный — unusu­al необычный;
  • Mis — данный префикс имеет смысл “неправильно, неверно”: infor­ma­tion (информация) — mis­in­for­ma­tion (неверная информация), under­stand (понимать) — mis­un­der­stand (неправильно понять), print (печатать) — mis­print (опечатка);
  • Re — означает “сделать заново, снова”: try (пытаться) — retry (повторная попытка), read (читать) — reread (перечитать), start (начало) — restart (начать заново);
  • Over — указывает на излишнюю степень чего-то: train­ing (тренировка) — over­train­ing (перетренированность), grow (расти) — over­grow (зарастать — перепастать), work (работать) — over­work (перерабатывать — переутомиться);
  • Under — имеет значение “под”: land (земля) — under­land (подземелье), under­wear (wear — носить) — нижнее белье (то, что носят под одеждой);
  • Ex — данный префикс означает “бывший” — ex-gov­er­nor — бывший губернатор, ex-boyfriend — бывшый парень;

Словообразование в английском языке — таблица Суффиксов

Суффиксы считаются индикаторами частей речи в английском языке, следовательно, их можно разбить на три группы: суффиксы существительных, прилагательных и глаголов. О наречиях говорить особенно нечего, в основной массе случаев они формируются с помощью только одного суффикса ‑ly (quick — quickly).

Английские суффиксы существительных таблица

Суффиксы существительных

Посредством суффиксов формируются существительные, обозначающие лица, и отвлеченные существительные, означающие широкие или общие понятия.

Существительные, обозначающие лица

Суффиксы —er, —or – примыкают к глаголам для обозначения действующего лица
to write – написать writer – писатель
to invent – изобретать inven­tor – изобретатель
to crush – крушить crush­er – крушитель
to train – тренировать train­er – тренер
Суффиксы ‑ism и ‑ist соответствуют суффиксам ‑изм и ‑ист в русском языке, означают идеологии, политические или научные тенденции и их приверженцев
social­ism социализм
hero­ism героизм
ter­ror­ism терроризм
Суффикс —ee служит для обозначения лица, на которое направлено действие
to address – адресовать addressee – адресат
to train – тренировать trainee – практикант, стажёр
to pay – платить pay­ee – получатель платежа
Суффикс —ian служит для обозначения национальной принадлежности
Roman­ian румын
Aus­tri­an австриец
Cana­di­an канадец
Nor­we­gian норвежец

Отвлеченные существительные

Суффикс ‑age как правило формирует существительные от глаголов
to break – ломать break­age – поломка
to band – перевязывать ban­dage  – бинт, бандаж, повязка
Суффиксы ‑ance, ‑ence — с их поддержкой существительные образуются от прилагательных с суффиксами ‑ant, ‑ent
impor­tant – важный impor­tance – важность
dif­fer­ent – отличающийся dif­fer­ence – разница
tol­er­ant – терпимый tol­er­ance – терпимость
Суффикс —dom образует существительные от прилагательных и других существительных
Bore – скучное занятие Bore­dom — скука
king – король king­dom – королевство
Суффикс —hood как правило образует существительные от других существительных
Man – человек, мужчина man­hood – мужество
child – ребенок child­hood – детство
knight – рыцарь knight­hood – рыцарство
Суффиксы —ion, —ation, —sion, —ssion формируют существительные от глаголов, при этом порой меняется произношение или написание
to invent – изобретать inven­tion – изобретение
to abstain – воздержаться absten­tion – воздержание
to impress – впечатлить impres­sion – впечатление
Суффикс —ment образует существительные от глаголов
to pun­ish – наказывать pun­ish­ment – наказание
to argue – спорить argu­ment – довод, спор, обсуждение
Суффикс —ness образует существительные от прилагательных
cute – милый cute­ness – привлекательность
dark – тёмный dark­ness – темнота
hap­py – счастливый hap­pi­ness – счастье
Суффикс —ship образует существительные от других существительных
own­er – владелец own­er­ship – владение
friend – друг friend­ship – дружба
Суффикс —ure образует существительные от глаголов
to please – доставлять удовольствие plea­sure – удовольствие
to press – давить pres­sure – давление
to seize – захватывать seizure – захват

Суффиксы прилагательных

Способы образования слов в английском языке

Суффиксы —able, —ible выражают возможность подвергнуться действию, в русском языке есть похожее “-абельный”, “-ивый”, “-обный”
to notice – заметить notice­able – заметный
to read – читать read­able – читабельный
to flex – сгибать flex­i­ble – гибкий
to con­vert – обращать, превращать con­vertable – обратимый, конвертируемый
Суффикс —al формирует прилагательные от существительных (ср. В русском языке: ‑альный)
music – музыка musi­cal – музыкальный
mag­ic – магия mag­i­cal – магический
form – форма for­mal – формальный
Суффиксы —ant, —ent формируют прилагательные от глаголов (этим прилагательным соответствуют существительные с —ance, —ence)
to dif­fer – отличаться dif­fer­ent – отличающийся (dif­fer­ence – отличие)
to resist – сопротивляться resis­tant – сопротивляющийся (resis­tance – сопротивление)
Суффиксы —ful формируют прилагательные от существительных и указывает на наличие качества. (противоположность —less)
play – игра play­ful – игривый
doubt – сомнение doubt­ful – сомнительный
skill – умение skill­ful – опытный, умелый
Суффикс —ish формирует прилагательные со значениями: а) национальной принадлежности, б) слабой меры качества (как в русском ‑оват, ‑еват)
child – ребёнок child­ish – детский
girl – девушка girl­ish – девчачий, женский
green – зелёный green­ish – зелёноватый
fool – дурак fool­ish – глупый
Суффикс —ive формирует прилагательные от глаголов и существительных (как в русском языке ‑ивный, ‑ивная)
to attract – привлекать attrac­tive – привлекательный
effect – эффект, действие effec­tive – действительный
to cre­ate – создавать cre­ative – креативный
Суффикс —less формирует прилагательные от существительного и означает отсутствие качества (антипод —ful)
care – забота care less – беззаботный
fear – страх fear­less – безстрашный
home – дом home­less – бездомный
Суффикс —ous образует прилагательные от существительных
poi­son – яд poi­so­nous – ядовитый
mys­tery – загадка, тайна mys­te­ri­ous – загадочный
nerve – нерв ner­vous – нервный
Суффикс —y формирует прилагательные от существительных (обычно, связанных с погодой)
sport – спорт sporty – спортивный
dirt – грязь dirty – грязно
fog – туман fog­gy – туманный
rain – дождь rainy – дождливый
class – класс classy – классный

Суффиксы глаголов

Способы образования слов в английском языке

Суффикс ‑en придает значения: делать, делаться, становиться, формирует глаголы от прилагательных и существительных
length – длина length­en – удлинять
weak – слабый weak­en – слабеть
threat – угроза Threat­en – угрожать
wide – широкий widen – расширять
Суффикс –fy (ify, —efy) как правило формирует глаголы от прилагательных, реже – от существительных. * Суффикс —efy используется только в 4‑х словах: liq­ue­fy, putre­fy, rar­efy, stu­pe­fy.
mode – вид, форма to mod­i­fy – видоизменять, корректировать
glo­ry – слава to glo­ri­fy – прославлять
gas – простой to gasi­fy – упрощать
pure – чистый to puri­fy – очищать
Суффиксы ‑ise, ‑yse, ‑ize, ‑yze  как правило образует глаголы от существительных
advert – реклама, объявление to adver­tise – рекламировать
crys­tal – кристалл to crys­tal­lize – кристаллизовать
sym­pa­thy – сочувствие to sym­pa­thize – сочувствовать

How are words formed? Are there any rules by which words are formed? Let’s find out. This article will walk you through what word formation is, the various types of word formation and the rules to be adhered to when forming words. The number of examples given will make your learning process more effective and easier. Check it out.

Table of Contents

  • What Is Word Formation?
  • Types of Word Formation with Examples
  • Rules to be Followed When Forming Words
  • Test Your Understanding of Word Formation
  • Frequently Asked Questions on Word Formation in English

The English language is known for its wonderful quality of the way in which words and sentences are formed and used. Formation of new words from an existing root word by adding a syllable or another word is the general process; however, there are multiple ways in which it can be done.

Types of Word Formation with Examples

The formation of words is classified into four types based on how the process of formation is carried out. They are:

  • By adding prefixes
  • By adding suffixes
  • Converting from one word class to another
  • Forming compound words

Let us look at each type of word formation in detail.

Adding Prefixes

The term ‘prefix’ refers to one or more alphabets added to the stem of a word, mostly to make it negative. The most commonly used prefixes include ‘in-’, ‘un-’, ‘dis-’, ‘im-’, ‘ir-’, etc. Look at the examples given below for a clearer understanding of how prefixes are used to form new words.

Examples of Word Formation by the Addition of Prefixes

  • Discipline – indiscipline
  • Just – unjust
  • Tidy – untidy
  • Respect – disrespect
  • Understand – misunderstand
  • Comfortable – uncomfortable
  • Comfort – discomfort
  • Responsible – irresponsible
  • Honest – dishonest
  • Happy – unhappy
  • Polite – impolite
  • Experience – inexperience
  • Practical – impractical
  • Important – unimportant
  • Legal – illegal
  • Ethical – unethical
  • Potent – impotent

Adding Suffixes

A suffix is a short syllable added at the end of a base word. The addition of suffixes usually changes the word class of the particular word. The most common suffixes include ‘-ment’, ‘-ness’, ‘-ity’, ‘-ous’, ‘-tion’, ‘-sion’, ‘-al’, ‘-able’, ‘-ible’, ‘-ive’, ‘-ly’, ‘-ate’, ‘-er’, ‘-or’, etc. Check out the following examples to see how suffixes are added.

Examples of Word Formation by the Addition of Suffixes

  • Comprehend (verb) – comprehension (noun) – comprehensible (adjective)
  • Inform (verb) – information (noun) – informative (adjective)
  • Invest (verb) – Investment (noun) – Investor (noun)
  • Write (verb) – writer (noun)
  • Authorise (verb) – authorisation (noun)
  • Move (verb) – movement (noun)
  • Add (verb) – addition (noun)
  • Happy (adjective) – happiness (noun)
  • Conserve (verb) – conservation (noun)
  • Wide (Adjective) – widen (verb)
  • Manage (verb) – manageable (adjective) – manager (noun)
  • Courage (noun) – courageous (adjective)
  • Brave (adjective) – bravery (noun)
  • Profit (noun) – profitable (adjective)
  • Quick (adjective) – quickly (adverb)
  • Happy (adjective) – happily (adverb)
  • Sad (adjective) – sadness (noun)

Conversion

The process of conversion focuses solely on changing the word class of the particular word. If you have noticed, you would have seen how some nouns are used to perform the role of a verb or an adjective acting like a noun just by the addition of another word or slightly altering the spelling of the actual word.

Examples of Word Formation by Conversion

  • The rich should help the poor.

Adjectives such as ‘rich’ and ‘poor’ are used as nouns by using them with the article ‘the’.

  • Everyone is talented.

‘Talented’ – a past participle is used as an adjective in the above sentence. The word is formed by adding the suffix ‘ed’ to the end of the noun ‘talent’.

  • There will definitely be a lot of ups and downs in life.

Prepositions ‘up’ and ‘down’ are used as nouns by adding ‘s’ to the end of it.

  • He texted me about the meeting only at the last minute.

The noun ‘text’ used to refer to a text message sent on a phone is used as a verb in the sentence by adding an ‘ed’ to the end of the word.

  • The financial aid had to be approved before we could make a decision.

The noun ‘finance’ is used as an adjective by adding ‘ial’ to the end of it and the verb ‘decide’ is used as a noun by removing ‘de’ and adding ‘sion’ to the word.

Forming Compound Words

Compound words are formed by combining one part of speech with another to form a specific word class. There are many ways in which compound words are formed. Verbs are combined with adjectives to form compound verbs, a present participle is combined with a noun to form a compound noun, two nouns are combined to form a compound noun, an adjective and a noun are combined to form a compound noun, an adverb is combined with a noun to form a compound noun, an adjective is combined with a past participle to form a compound adjective and so on. Take a look at the following examples and go through the articles on compound nouns, compound words and compound adjectives to understand how they work.

Examples of Word Formation by Compounding

  • Over (adverb) + load (noun) – Overload
  • White (adjective) + wash (verb) – Whitewash
  • Black (adjective) + board (noun ) – Blackboard
  • Cup (noun) + board (noun) – Cupboard
  • Short (adjective) + hand (noun) – Shorthand
  • Swimming (present participle) + pool (noun) – Swimming pool
  • Three (adjective) + legged (past participle) – Three-legged
  • Break (verb) + Down (preposition) – Breakdown
  • Up (preposition) + town (noun) – Uptown
  • Copy (verb) + writer (noun) – Copywriter
  • Sun (noun) + rise (verb) – Sunrise
  • Count (verb) + down (preposition) – Countdown
  • Flash (verb) + mob (noun) – Flash mob
  • Master (noun) + piece (noun) – Masterpiece
  • Round (adjective) + table (noun) – Round-table

Rules to be Followed When Forming Words

Formation of words can be a very interesting exercise, but you have to be really careful when you are adding inflections or affixes. There are a few things you will need to bear in mind when you are forming words. Take a look at the following points to learn what they are.

  • Before making any change to the stem of the word, try to analyse what is the kind of meaning you want the word to convey and what role the word will have to play in the sentence.
  • In most cases, the beginning of the base word remains the same. Only when prefixes are added the word has a syllable added to the beginning of it. Notice that even in this case, the word is retained as such.
  • When suffixes are added, there are many instances where you will have to remove the last one or more alphabets of the word and add the suffix. However, there are words like ‘movement’ where the suffix is just added without any change in the spelling of the base word.
  • Here is one way to easily know which suffix has to be added to form a particular word class – most often, nouns end in ‘er’, ‘or’, ‘ist’, ‘ian’, ‘ion’, ‘ment’, ‘ness’, and ‘ity’; verbs end in ‘ise’, ‘ate’ and ‘en’; adjectives end in ‘able’, ‘ible’, ‘ive’, ‘ic’, ‘ed’, ‘ing’ and ‘al’; and adverbs normally end in ‘ly’.
  • When words are formed by conversion, be very careful. Make sure you know that you are converting them accurately and using them in the sentence properly.
  • When forming compound words, see to it that you hyphenate them if necessary, use the right combination of words and do not just mix and match any word.
  • Changing from one tense to another also can also be considered a type of word formation, as the word is inflected to indicate the twelve different tenses in the English language.
  • Forming degrees of comparison can also be put under word formation. In this case, the comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding ‘er’ and ‘est’ to the end of the adjective. The comparative and superlative degrees of polysyllabic words are formed by using ‘more’ and ‘most’, respectively, along with the adjective.

Test Your Understanding of Word Formation

Exercise 1 – Add Prefixes and Suffixes

Add prefixes and suffixes to the following words.

1. Passion____

2. Remember____

3. ____conscious

4. Sense____

5. ____acceptable

6. Entertain____

7. ____representation

8. Neat____

9. Invent____

10. ____interpret

Answers for Exercise 1

1. Passionate

2. Remembrance

3. Unconscious/Subconscious

4. Sensible/Senseless

5. Unacceptable

6. Entertainment

7. Misrepresentation

8. Neatly/Neatness

9. Invention

10. Misinterpret

Exercise 2 – Conversion of Words

Go through the following words and convert them as directed.

1. Money (convert into adjective)

2. Brave (convert into noun)

3. Clean (convert into noun)

4. Prayer (convert into adjective)

5. Resemblance (convert into verb)

6. Slow (convert into adverb)

7. Treat (convert into noun)

8. Confession (convert into verb)

9. Vary (convert into adjective)

10. Beauty (convert into verb)

Answers for Exercise 2

1. Monetary

2. Bravery

3. Cleanliness

4. Prayerful

5. Resemble

6. Slowly

7. Treatment

8. Confess

9. Various/variable

10. Beautify

Exercise 3 – Form Compound Words

Go through the words in the box given below and use them to form ten compound words.

up, table, spend, load, green, machine, case, make, estimate, over, self

1. _______ confident

2. Washing _______

3. Time _______

4. Under _______

5. _______sufficient

6. Up_______

7. _______set

8. Suit_______

9. _______over

10. _______thrift

Answers for Exercise 3

1. Overconfident

2. Washing machine

3. Timetable

4. Underestimate

5. Self-sufficient

6. Upload

7. Upset

8. Suitcase

9. Makeover

10. Spendthrift

Frequently Asked Questions on Word Formation in English

What is word formation?

Word formation is the process by which new words are formed by adding an affix, another word or converting from one word class to another by removing and adding alphabets.

What are the four types of word formation?

The four types of word formation include:

  • Addition of prefix
  • Addition of suffix
  • Conversion from one word class to another
  • Forming compound words

Give some examples of word formation.

Here are some examples of the various types of word formation for your reference:

  • Practical – impractical (prefix)
  • Purpose – purposeful (suffix)
  • Silent – silence (conversion)
  • Dining + room – Dining room (compound word)
  • Small – smaller – smallest (degrees of comparison)

In a
sentence or text you have to change the form of a word, e.g. from a noun to an
adjective, or from a verb to a noun. For example:

The
_____ was very nervous. (sing)

You
have to complete the sentence with the person noun (singer). You change
the verb (sing) into the person noun (singer).

·        
Look at the word you have to change. Which words do you know that
are in the same word family?

·        
The beginning of the word is often the same and the end of the
word changes.

·        
What form is the new word? A verb? A noun? An adjective? An
adverb?

·        
Nouns often end: -ment, -ion, -ness, -ity.

·        
People nouns often end: -er, -or, -ist, -ian.

·        
Adjectives often end: -able, -ible, -ive, -al, -ic, -ed, -ing.

·        
Some verbs end: -ise, -ate, -en.

·        
Adverbs often end: -ly.

·        
Is the new word negative? If so, you may need a prefix, e.g. un- (unhappy),
im- (impolite), in- (inexperienced), dis- (dishonest),
etc.

·        
If you don’t know the new word, guess. You
may be right!

There are many word beginnings (prefixes) and word
endings (suffixes) that can be added to a word to change its meaning or its
word class. The most common ones are shown here, followed by examples of how
they are used in the process of word formation. More can be found in the
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.

Verb Formation

The endings ize and ify can be added to nouns and
adjectives to form verbs.

Noun + ize = Verb

American + ize = Americanize Legal + ize = legalize

This will make the factory more modern. This will
modernize the factory. Adjective + ize = Verb

 False + ify = Falsify Humid + ify = humidify

These tablets make the water pure. They purify the
water.

Adverb Formation

The ending ly can be added to most adjectives to form
adverbs.

Adjective + ly = Adverb

Easy + ly = easily His behaviour was stupid. He
behaved stupidly

Noun Formation

The endings er, ment, and ation can be added to many
verbs to form nouns.

Verb + er = Noun Fasten + er = faster Open
+ er = opener

John drives a bus. He is a bus driver.

Amaze + ment = amazement Retire + ment = retirement

Children develop very quickly. Their development is
very quick.

Admire + ation = admiration Organize + ation =
organization

The doctor examined me. The doctor gave me an
examination.

The endings ity/ty and ness can be added to many
adjectives to form nouns.

 Stupid + ity = stupidity Don’t be so cruel. I hate
cruelty

Adjective Formation

The endings y, ic, ical, ful, and less can be added to
many nouns to form adjectives. The ending able can be added to many verbs to
form adjectives.

Noun + y = Adjective Dirt + y = dirty

That was an awful smell. It was very smelly.

Atom + ic = atomic That was a book of poetry. It was a
poetic book.

Hope + ful = hopeful His broken leg caused pain. It
was very painful.

Care + less = careless The operation didn’t cause
pain. It was painless.

Verb + able = Adjective Love + able = lovable You can
wash this coat.

It’s washable Opposites Prefixes added to the front of
many words can produce an opposite meaning. un + fortunate = unfortunate I’m
not very happy. In fact I’m very unhappy.

 Put the correct
form of the word in brackets into the blank .

1. The results were very strange! In fact,
they were ___________________ ! (BELIEVE)

2. He has an unfortunate
___________________ to understand people’s feelings (ABLE)

3. Due to the clerk’s
______________________ we missed the train (STUBBORN)

4. What we saw was beyond all
______________________ (EXPECT)

5. She is a student of the
______________________ (HUMAN)

6. The book contains some great
______________________ (ILLUSTRATE)

7. Please give us details of your present
______________________ (OCCUPY)

8. What is the ______________________ of
the Danube River (LONG)

9. The ______________________ of our
agriculture is important if we want to produce more food (MECHANIC)

10. Drug ______________________ is a
problem causing great concern (ADDICT)

11. The ______________________ of the
awards is scheduled for next Friday (PRESENT)

12. I have been sworn to
______________________ so I can’t say a word (SECRET)

13. After losing her job she was
______________________ for a month (EMPLOY)

14. Pushing into a queue is considered to
be extremely ______________________ (POLITE)

15. The audience gave the violinist a
round of ______________________ (APPLAUD)

16. He isn’t happy with his job because he
feels he is ______________________ (PAY)

17. We have just been shown another
example of ______________________ killing (SENSE)

18. My sister’s ______________________
makes hers social life difficult (SHY)

19. I’m not sure at all I really can’t say
with ______________________ (CERTAIN)

20. My ______________________ is the
history of Elizabethan England (SPECIAL)

21. The police were told by their
______________________ where to find the criminal (INFORM)

22. He received many medals for his acts
of ______________________ during the war (HERO)

23. The ______________________ of the
company is said to be dangerous to small firms (EXPAND)

24. For all of us, Marilyn Monroe was the
______________________ of beauty (PERSON)

25. I can guarantee the ______________________
of our new product (RELY)

26. The government is encouraging heavy
______________________ (INVEST)

27. People who suffer from
______________________ should buy themselves a pet (LONELY)

28. George and I have been friends since
______________________ (CHILD)

29. Everybody is worried about the
______________________ of the rain forest (DESTROY)

30. Some MPs are calling for
______________________ without trial (DETAIN)

31. My grandfather was given a medal for ______________________
(BRAVE)

32. My father takes great
______________________ in his work (PROUD)

33. This bag contains all my photographic
______________________ (EQUIP)

34. ______________________ is probably the
most useful form of energy (ELECTRIC)

35. John turned up on the wrong day
because of a ______________________ (UNDERSTAND)

36. Jake had another
______________________ with his boss (AGREE)

37. The bank robbers were sentenced to
twelve years of ______________________ (PRISON)

38. Mary suddenly felt sick, so we needed
a ______________________ for her part in the play (REPLACE)

39. Failure to apply in time may result in
a ______________________ of benefits (LOSE)

40.
Pat was accused of stealing some ______________________ documents (CONFIDENT)

 Put the correct
form of the word in brackets into the blank.

1. In the future the public will have a
wider __________________ of television programs. (CHOOSE)

2. Looking after the health of 700
children is heavy ______________________ . (RESPONSIBLE)

3. The town spent more money on
__________________ and health than ever before (HOUSE)

4. Do you have any particular
__________________ where we sit? (PREFER)

5. There’s a __________________ contrast
between what he does and what he says. (STRIKE)

6. The party turned out to be a huge
______________________ (DISAPPOINT)

7. He was fined and __________________ for
reckless driving (QUALIFY).

8. Is it possible to remove the smell from
the books that have been in _______________ for such a long time? (STORE)

9. Many people are interested in job
__________________ more than in earning large amount of money (SATISFY).

10. I hadn’t made a __________________ ,
so I just got on the first flight available. (RESERVE)

11. The anti-doping association believes
that all sports must be free of drug __________________ (USE).

12. The country is facing a population
__________________ . (EXPLODE)

13. It is __________________ to fasten
your seat-belts before take-off (ADVISE)

14. She claimed __________________ benefit
for over six months. (EMPLOY)

15. Tax __________________ is one of the
biggest problems that face the new country. (EVADE)

16. You can basically wear what you want
but there is an _____________ law that says you must not wear jeans. (WRITE)

17. The __________________ course is being
paid for by the company. (MANAGE)

18. It’s a __________________ shame that
she didn’t have a better chance in life. (CRY)

19. The farm house we stayed in was
completely off the __________________ track. (BEAT)

20. The police searched the house
_______________________ . (SYSTEM)

21. He is a __________________ -paid
senior executive. (HIGH)

22. A full-scale ____________________ of
our company is urgently needed (ORGANIZE)

23. Are we going to be saved
__________________ by our oil supplies? (ECONOMY)

24. Experts have tried to find a
__________________ to the personnel problems. (SOLVE)

25. She’s a specialist in psychology and
human __________________ . (BEHAVE)

26. The __________________ of the most
important port of the country eliminated all trade. (BLOCK)

27. The __________________ system of some
countries used to be based on gold. (MONEY)

28. He recovered from his injuries in the
__________________ hospital (NAVY)

29. He has loved her __________________
ever since they first met. (PASSION)

30. The importance of this
__________________ has been extremely overrated. (INVENT)

31. He is a convinced __________________
of Chinese communism (FOLLOW)

32. Jane’s party was more of an
__________________ test than anything else. (ENDURE)

33. The government has committed itself to
developing __________________ sources of energy. (NEW)

34. He took a job as a sales
__________________ in a big department store. (ASSIST)

35. The potential benefits of this
treatment __________________ the risks. (WEIGH)

36. Make sure the hairdryer is
__________________ before you fix the switch. (CONNECT)

37. They say that travel
__________________ the mind. (BROAD)

38. Without his teacher’s __________________
he would have given up long ago. (ENCOURAGE)

39. Dickens’s last novel was
__________________ The Mystery of Edwin Drood. (TITLE)

40.
She has known me for two years now but she still __________________ my name.
(PRONOUNCE)

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