Analysis of word structure definition

Most
of the English lexicon is constituted by word which have several
morphemes. (75 % engl. Words – polymorphemic words).

In
ME most English vocabulary arises grows by making new lexemes out of
old one, by adding an affixation to previously existing forms
altering their words class and meaning by combining the existing
words (basis) to produce compounds: derivatives, derived words
(friendly
– unfriendly, teapot, bag bone).

The
contribution of word formation to the grows and development of
English lexicons is second to none, although a great deal belong to
borrowing and semantic derivation.

1. A
   complex word structure – the result of different word-formation
   process (illegal, discouraging, uninteresting)

2. A
   complex word structure may be connected with borrowing and further
   identification of certain morpheme in the system of language
   recipient.

Moreover
similar international structure may be the result of different word
formation process. E.g. discouraging
– discourage + ing; uninteresting – un + interesting
– morphologically(structurally) they are the same.

The
morphemic analyses and derived analyses they are differ in the aims
and basic elements.

To
eye – monomorphic (root word) It’s a derived word.A
morpheme
– the smallest meaningful language unit. Morphemes
may be classified:

1. from
   the semantic point of view.
   Semantically morphemes fall into two classes:

   • root-morphemes
     — is the lexical nucleus of a wщrd, it has an individual lexical
     meaning shared by no other morpheme of the language. The
     root-morpheme is isolated as the morpheme common to a set of words
     making up a word-cluster, for example the morpheme teach-in
     to teach,
     teacher, teaching, theor- in
     theory,
     theorist, theoretical, etc.

non-root
or affixational
morphemes
include inflectional morphemes or inflections and affixational
morphemes or affixes. Roots and affixes make two distinct classes of
morphemes due to the different roles they play in word-structure.

Roots
and affixational morphemes are generally easily distinguished and the
difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words
helpless,
handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.:
the root-morphemes help-,
hand-, black-, London-, -fill are
understood as the lexical centres of the words, as the basic
constituent part of a word without which the word is inconceivable.

Affixes
are classified into prefixes
and suffixes:
a prefix precedes the root-morpheme, a suffix follows it.
Affixes besides the meaning proper to root-morphemes possess the
part-of-speech meaning and a generalised lexical meaning.

1. Structurally morphemes fall into three types:

   • A
     free
     morpheme
     is defined as one that coincides with the stem or a word-form. A
     great many root-morphemes are free morphemes, for example, the
     root-morpheme friend
     —
     of the noun friendship
     is
     naturally qualified as a free morpheme because it coincides with
     one of the forms of the noun friend.

   • A
     bound
     morpheme
     occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are,
     naturally, bound morphemes, for they always make part of a word,
     e.g. the suffixes -ness,
     -ship, -ise (-ize), etc.,
     the prefixes un-,dis-,
     de-, etc.
     (e.g. readiness, comradeship, to activise; unnatural, to displease,
     to decipher).

Many
root-morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes which
always occur in morphemic sequences, i.e. in combinations with ‘
roots or affixes. All unique roots and pseudo-roots are-bound
morphemes. Such are the root-morphemes theor-
in
theory,
theoretical, etc.,
barbar-in
barbarism,
barbarian, etc.,
-ceive
in
conceive, perceive,
etc.

• Semi-bound
  (semi-free)
  morpheme
  are morphemes that can function in a morphemic sequence both as an
  affix and as a free morpheme. For example, the morpheme well
  and
  half
  on
  the one hand occur as free morphemes that coincide with the stem and
  the word-form in utterances like sleep
  well, half an hour,” on
  the other hand they occur as bound morphemes in words like
  well-known,
  half-eaten, half-done.Speaking
  of word-structure on the morphemic level two groups of morphemes
  should be specially mentioned.

To
the
first
group
belong morphemes of Greek and Latin origin often called combining
forms,
e.g. telephone,
telegraph, phonoscope, microscope, etc.
The morphemes tele-,
graph-, scope-, micro-, phone- are
characterised by a definite lexical meaning and peculiar stylistic
reference: tele-
means
‘far’, graph-
means
‘writing’, scope
— ’seeing’, micro-
implies
smallness, phone-
means
’sound.’ Comparing words with tele-
as
their first constituent, such as telegraph,
telephone, telegram one
may conclude that tele-
is
a prefix and graph-,
phone-, gram-are
root-morphemes. On the other hand, words like phonograph,
seismograph, autograph may
create the impression that the second morpheme graph
is
a suffix and the first — a root-morpheme. These morphemes are all
bound root-morphemes of a special kind and such words belong to words
made up of bound roots. The fact that these morphemes do not possess
the part-of-speech meaning typical of affixational morphemes
evidences their status as roots.

The
second
group
embraces
morphemes occupying a kind of intermediate
position, morphemes that are changing their class membership.

According
to the number of morphemes words are classified into monomorphic
and
polymorphic.

Monomorphiс
or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small,
dog, make, give, etc.

Pоlуmоrphiс
words according to the number of root-morphemes are classified into
two subgroups:

• polyradical
  words, i.e. words which consist of two or more roots. Polyradical
  words fall into two types:

1)
polyradical
words
which consist of two or more roots with no affixational morphemes,
e.g. book-stand,
eye-ball, lamp-shade, etc.
and

2)
words which contain
at least two
roots
and one
or more
affixational
morphemes,
e.g. safety-pin,
wedding-pie, class-consciousness, light-mindedness, pen-holder, etc.

• Monoradical
  words fall into two subtypes:

radical-suffixal
words, i.e. words that consist of one root-morpheme and one or more
suffixal morphemes, e.g. acceptable,
acceptability, blackish, etc.;

2)radical-prefixal
words, i.e. words that consist of one root-morpheme and a prefixal
morpheme, e.g. outdo,
rearrange, unbutton, etc.
and 3) prefixo-radical-suffixal,
i.e. words which consist of one root, a prefixal and suffixal
morphemes, e.g. disagreeable,
misinterpretation, etc.

Three
types of morphemic segmentability of words are distinguished:
complete,
conditional
and
defective.

Complete
segmentability is characteristic of a great many words the morphemic
structure of which is transparent enough, as their individual
morphemes clearly stand out within the word lending themselves easily
to isolation.

Conditional
morphemic segmentability characterises words whose segmentation into
the constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons. The
morphemes making up words of conditional segmentability thus differ
from morphemes making up words of complete segmentability in that the
former do not rise to the full status of morphemes for semantic
reasons and that is why a special term is applied to them in
linguistic literature: such morphemes are called pseudo-morphemes
or quasi-morphemes.

Defective
morphemic segmentability is the property of words whose component
morphemes seldom or never recur in other words. One
of
the component morphemes is a unique morpheme in the sense that it
does not, as a rule, recur in a different linguistic environment. A
unique morpheme is isolated and understood as meaningful because the
constituent morphemes display a more or less clear denotational
meaning. The morphemic analysis of words like cranberry,
gooseberry, strawberry shows
that they also possess defective morphemic segmentability: the
morphemes cran-,
goose-, straw- are
unique morphemes.

Morphemic
analyses – the
aim is to state the number and type of morphemes the word possess.

The
procedure generally employed for the purposes of segmenting words
into the constituent morphemes is the method of Immediate
and Ultimate
Constituents.
This method is based on a binary principle, i.e. each stage of the
procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into.
At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate
Constituents (ICs). Each IC at the next stage of analysis is in turn
broken into two smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is
completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further
division, i.e. morphemes. In terms of the method employed these are
referred to as the Ultimate Constituents (UCs). For example the noun
friendliness
is
first segmented into the IC friendly
recurring
in the adjectives friendly-looking
and
friendly
and
the -ness
found
in a countless number of nouns, such as happiness,
darkness, unselfishness, etc.
The IC -ness
is
at the same time a UC of the noun, as it cannot be broken into any
smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. The IC
friendly
is
next broken into the ICs friend-and
-ly
recurring
in friendship,
unfriendly, etc.
on the one hand, and wifely,
brotherly, etc.,
on the other. Needless to say that the ICs friend-and
-ly
are
both UCs of the word under analysis.

The
morphemic analysis according to the IC and UC may be carried out on
the basis of two principles: the so-called root
principle
and
the
affix principle.
According to the affix
principle
the segmentation of the word into its constituent morphemes is based
on the identification of an affixational morpheme within a set of
words; for example, the identification of the suffixational morpheme
-less
leads
to the segmentation of words like useless,
hopeless, merciless, etc.,
into the suffixational morpheme -less and the root-morphemes within a
word-cluster; the identification of the root-morpheme agree- in the
words agreeable,
agreement, disagree makes
it possible to split these words into the root -agree-
and
the affixational morphemes -able,
-ment, dis-. As
a rule, the application of one of these

11.
Derivational analyses.

The
nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word is known as its
derivative
structure.
According to the derivative structure all words fall into two big
classes: simple,
non-derived words and complexes
or derivatives.
Simplexes
are words which derivationally cannot’ be segmented into ICs.
Derivatives
are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that
motivate them structurally and semantically, i.e. the meaning and the
structure of the derivative is understood through the comparison with
the meaning and the structure of the source word.

The
basic elementary units of the derivative structure of words are:
derivational
bases,
derivational
affixes
and
derivational
patterns.
The relations between words with a common root but of different
derivative structure are known as derivative
relations.
The derivative and derivative relations make the subject of study at
the
derivational
level
of analysis;
it aims at establishing correlations between different types of
words, the structural and semantic patterns words are built on, the
study also enables one to understand how new words appear in the
language.

Derivational
base: is
defined as the constituent to which a rule of word-formation is
applied. Structurally derivational bases fall into three classes: 1)
bases
that coincide
with
morphological
stems
of different degrees of complexity, e.g. dutiful,
dutifully;
day-dream,
to day-dream, daydreamer.

Derivationally
the stems may be:

1. simple,
   which consist of only one, semantically non motivated constituent
   (pocket,
   motion, retain, horrible).

b) derived
stems are semantically and structurally motivated, and are the
results of the application of word-formation rules (girl
– girlish, to weekend, to daydream)

c) compound
stems are always binary and semantically motivated (match-box,
letter-writer)

2)
bases
that coincide with
word-forms;
e.g. paper-bound,
unsmiling,
unknown.
This class of bases is confined to verbal word-forms
— the
present and the past participles.

3)
bases
that coincide with
word-grоups
of different degrees of stability, e ,g. second-rateness,
flat-waisted,
etc. This class is made of word-groups. Bases of this kind are most
active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and
nouns, e.g. blue-eyed,
long-fingered, old-fashioned, do-gooder, etc.

Derivational
affixes: Derivational
affixes are ICs of numerous derivatives in all parts of speech.
Derivational affixes possess two basic functions: 1)
that
of stem-building
and 2)
that
of word-building.
In most cases derivational affixes perform both
functions
simultaneously. It is true that the part-of-speech meaning is proper
in different degrees to the derivational suffixes and prefixes. It
stands out clearly in derivational suffixes but it is less evident in
prefixes; some prefixes lack it altogether. Prefixes like en-,
un-, de-,
out-,
be-,
unmistakably possess the part-of-speech meaning and function as verb
classifiers. The prefix over-evidently
lacks the part-of-speech meaning and is freely used both for verbs
and adjectives, the same may be said about non-,
pre-, post-.

Derivational
patterns: A
derivational
pattern
is a regular
meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the
order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may
be brought together.

There
are two types of DPs — structural that specify base classes and
individual affixes, and structural-semantic that specify semantic
peculiarities of bases and the individual meaning of the affix. DPs
of different levels of generalisation signal: 1)
the
class of source unit that motivates the derivative and the direction
of motivation between different classes of words; 2)
the
part of speech of the derivative; 3)
the
lexical sets and semantic features of derivatives.

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Presentation on theme: «The Analysis of Word Structure»— Presentation transcript:

1

The Analysis of Word Structure
Lecture 5 Morphology The Analysis of Word Structure

2

Morphology Words like read, language, tall, on, etc. must be learned and stored as separate items in the lexicon. However, countless other words can be constructed and comprehended by the application of some general rules. Therefore, part of the linguistic competence is the ability to construct and interpret words. This system of categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation is called morphology.

3

Word definition Words are meaningful linguistic units that can combine to form larger structures (phrases, clauses, or sentences). A ward is associated with a particular meaning.. It is a unit of expression that is intuitively recognizable by native speakers.

4

Word identification Words are the physically definable units one encounters in a stretch of writing or speech. Words are most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure. Words are uninterruptible.

5

Word = free form A word is the smallest free form found in language.
A free form is an element that: i can occur in isolation bird vs. -s and/or ii whose position with respect to neighbouring elements isn’t entirely fixed. Birds avoid cats. (before a verb) Cats chase birds. (after a verb) The birds (before a noun) The young birds (before something else)

6

Morpheme Concepts that are expressed by a word (free form) in one language may not necessarily have the same status in other languages: Arabic English /-/ my mother So, we need a simpler alternative.

7

Morpheme Words have an internal structure consisting of smaller units organized with respect to each other. The most important component of word structure is the morpheme. It is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function: builder = build + -er ‘construct’ ‘one who does’ houses = house + -s ‘dwelling’ ‘more than one’

8

Morphemes Free and Bound
A free morpheme can be a word by itself; it can stand alone. A bound morpheme must be attached to another element; it cannot stand alone. free bound car -s smile -ed tall -er care -ful

9

Allomorphs Morphemes do not always have an invariant form.
The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. indefiniteness: a/an past tense: d, t, әd plural: z, s, әz

10

Word Structure Complex words consist of a root and one or more affixes. The root morpheme: i contributes the most to the word’s meaning, ii belongs to a lexical category. An affix: i does not belong to a lexical category, ii is always a bound morpheme.

11

Word Structure N V V Aff Adj Aff teach er modern ize

12

Word Structure A base is the form to which an affix is added.
It can be the root: black – en Or, it can be a larger unit: blacken – ed

13

Word Structure V black en ed Base for -ed  V
Root and base  Adj Aff Aff for -en black en ed

14

Structure Modification Affixation
Affixation is the most common morphological process. prefixing: inter-marry suffixing: kind-ness infixing: Aff (present) / k a t a b | / Root

15

Structure Modification Internal change
Internal change is a process that substitutes one non-morphemic segment for another: sing sang foot feet These cannot be considered as examples on infixing: i English does not have a root *sng (meaning ‘produce words in a musical tone’). ii English does not have a morpheme i meaning ‘present’ or a morpheme a meaning ‘past’ in the sing/sang case.

16

Structure Modification Suppletion
Suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morpheme is replaced by a phonologically unrelated form in order to indicate a grammatical contrast. Basic form Suppletive form I me be were good well

17

Structure Modification Stress placement
A base can undergo a change in the placement of stress to reflect a change in its category. Verb Noun presént présent subjéct súbject contést cóntest

18

Structure Modification Compounding
It is a common morphological process which involves the combination of lexical categories to create larger words. The elements making up the compound are free forms.. Noun + Noun Adjective + Noun campsite bluebird bookcase greenhouse

19

Compounding N V Adj Adj N N V N Adj
In English, the rightmost morpheme determines the category of the entire compound. This morpheme is called the head. N V Adj Adj N N V N Adj green house spoon feed nation wide

20

Derivation Through the addition of an affix, derivation forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its base. base derived word sell seller teach teacher i category change: verb  noun ii meaning change: X  someone who does X

21

Complex Derivations Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create multiple levels of word structure. Verb + -ive = Adj. act + -ive = active Adj. + -ate = Verb active + -ate = activate Verb + -ion = Noun activate + -ion = activation

22

[N [V [Adj [V act] ive] ate] ion]
V Aff Aff Aff act ive ate ion

23

un-happy-ness ? (a) N (b) N Adj N Aff Adj Aff Aff Adj Aff
un happy ness un happy ness

24

un-happy-ness ? The prefix un- combines freely with adjectives, but not with nouns: unhealthy / unhealthy health + y *un + health un +healthy *unhealth + y Therefore, analysis (a) is more plausible than analysis (b).

25

Constraints on Derivation
Derivation does not apply freely to the members of a given category: i -ant combines with Latinate bases: Latinate Native defendant *fightant servant *teachant ii -en combines with monosyllabic obstruent-final base adjectives: whiten *abstracten (disyllabic) quicken *bluen (non-obstruent-final)

26

Class 1 derivational affixes
Class 1 affixes normally trigger changes in segments of the base. They usually also affect the assignment of stress. part-ial final consonant of the base changes from /t/ to /∫/ prodúct-ive stress shifts to second syllable (cf. próduct) public-ity final consonant of the base changes from /k/ to /s/, and stress shifts to second syllable (públic vs. publícity)

27

Class 2 derivational affixes
In contrast, class 2 affixes tend to be phonologically neutral, having no effect on the segmental makeup of the base or the stress assignment. prompt-ness no change triggered hair-less no change triggered hope-ful no change triggered self-ish no change triggered

28

Inflection Inflection is the modification of a word’s form.
Inflectional affixes signal grammatical relationships but do not change the grammatical class. The base to which an inflectional affix is added is the stem. The stem includes the root and all derivational affixes.

29

English Inflectional Affixes
{-s pl} noun plural {-s 3rd sg} present third person singular {-ing vb} present participle {-ed pt} past tense {-ed pp} past participle {-er cp} comparative {-est sp} superlative

30

Inflection vs. Derivation
Inflection and derivation are both marked by affixation. So, the distinction between the two processes can be subtle. It is not always clear which function a particular affix has. Three criteria help distinguish between inflectional and derivational affixes.

31

Category Change The output of inflection:
[N [N book ] s ] [V [V work ] ed ] There is no change in either the category of the base or the type of meaning it denotes. (another form of the word) The output of derivation: [N [V govern ] ment ] [N [N king ] dom ] There is a change in the category of the base and/or the type of meaning it denotes. (another word)

32

Order The derivational affix must be closer to the root than the inflectional affix. This means that the former combines with the base before the latter. N N N Aff Aff N Aff Aff neighbour hood s *neighbour s hood

33

Productivity The distribution of inflectional affixes is considerably freer than that of the derivational affixes. -ize vs. plural -s modern-ize (cf. *new-ize) legalize (cf. *lawful-ize) However, the suffix -s can combine with almost any noun that allows a plural form.

34

Summing up Morphology is concerned with the structure and formation of words in human language. Words consist of smaller formative elements called morphemes. These elements can be classified in a number of ways (free vs. bound, root vs. affix). Operations that can combine and modify morphemes include affixation, internal change, suppletion, and compounding. The two basic types of word formation in English are derivation and inflection.

35

Syntax Syntactic Data and Syntactic Rules
Constituent Order, Case Marking, and Thematic Roles Phrases and Constituent Structure