Открыть всю книгу
Think Back! Put these words into the table. In groups, add other words to each category. – Вспомните! Поместите эти слова в таблицу. В группах, добавьте другие слова для каждой категории.
Rooms/ places in the house — комнаты / мест в доме: hall — прихожая, study — кабинет, attic — чердак, kitchen — кухня, toilet — туалет, bathroom — ванная, living room — гостиная, dining room — столовая, basement — подвал
Furniture — мебель: armchair — кресло, cupboard — шкаф, wardrobe — гардероб, sofa — диван, bookshelf – книжная полка, chest of drawers — комод
Appliances – бытовая техника: DVD player — DVD-плеер, kettle — чайник, TV — телевизор, freezer — морозилка, vacuum cleaner — пылесос, video — видео, washing machine – стиральная машинка, microwave — микроволновка, heater — обогреватель, stairs — лестница
Things outside the house – вещи вне дома: drive – подъезд к дому, garage — гараж, statue — статуя, fountain — фонтан, garden — сад, balcony — балкон, porch — крыльцо, letter box – почтовый ящик, lawn — газон, doorbell – дверной звонок
Открыть всю книгу
1)General
features of word-compounding.
2)Structural
and semantic peculiarities of English compounds.
3)Classification
of compounds.
4)The
meaning of compounds.
5)Motivation
of English compounds.
6)Special
groups of compounds.
Word-compounding
is
a way of forming new words combining two or more stems. It’s
important to distinguish between compound words and
word-combinations, because sometimes they look or sound alike. It
happens because compounds originate directly from word-combinations.
The
major feature of compounds is their inseparability
of various kinds: graphic, semantic, phonetic, morphological.
There
is also a syntactic
criterion which helps us to distinguish between words and word
combinations. For example, between the constituent parts of the
word-group other words can be inserted (a
tall handsome
boy).
In
most cases the structural and semantic centre of the compound word
lies on the second component. It shows what part of speech the word
is. The function of the first element is to modify, to determine the
second element. Such compounds (with the structural and semantic
centre “in” the word) are called endocentric.
There
are also exocentric
compounds where the centre lies outside (pickpocket).
Another
type of compound words is called bahuvrihi
– compound nouns or adjectives consisting of two parts: the first
being an adjective, the second – a noun.
There
are several ways to classify compounds. Firstly, they can be grouped
according to their part of speech. Secondly, compounds are grouped
according to the
way the stems are linked together:
morphological compounds (few in number); syntactic compounds (from
segments of speech, preserving articles, prepositions, adverbs).
The
third classification is according to the combinability of compounding
with
other
ways of word-formation:
1) compounds proper (formed by a mere juxtaposition of two stems);
2)
derived or derivational compounds (have affixes in their structure);
3)
converted compounds;
4)
contractive compounds (based on shortening);
5)
compounds based on back formation;
Beside
lexical meanings the components of a compound word have
distributional
and
differential
meanings.
By distributional
meaning
we understand the order, the arrangement of the stems in the word.
The differential
meaning
helps to distinguish two compounds possessing the same element.
The
structural
meaning
of a compound may be described through the interrelation of its
components. e.g. N + Adj (heart-sick
– the relation of cpmparison).
In
most cases compounds are
motivated.
They can be completely motivated, partially motivated, unmotivated.
In partially motivated compounds one of the components (or both) has
changed its original meaning. The meaning of unmotivated compounds
has nothing to do with the meanings of their individual parts.
As
for special groups of compounds, here we distinguish:
a)
reduplicative compounds;
b)
ablaut combinations;
c)
rhyme combinations.
There’s
a certain group of words that stand between compounds and derived.
These are words with so called semi-affixes:
kiss proof
(about
lipstick), fireproof,
foolproof.
Conversion
1)General
problems of conversion in English.
2)Semantic
relations between conversion pairs.
3)
Sources and productivity of conversion.
In
linguistics conversion
is
a type of word-formation; it is a process of creating a new word in a
different part of speech without adding any derivational element. The
morphemic shape of the original word remains unchanged. There are
changes in the syntactical function of the original word, its part of
speech and meaning.
The
question of conversion
has been a controversial one in several aspects. The term conversion
was first used by Henry Sweet at the end of the 19th
century. The nature of conversion has been analyzed by several
linguists. A number of terms have been offered to describe the
process in question.
The
most objective treatment of conversion belongs to Victoria Nikolaevna
Yartseva. According to her, it is a combined morphological,
syntactical and semantic way of word-formation.
The
process was called “non-affixal
derivation”
(Galperin) or “zero
derivation”.
These terms have drawbacks, because there can be other examples of
non-affixal or zero derivation which are not connected with the
process described at the beginning of the lecture.
The
term “functional
change”
(by Arthur Kennedy) also has short-comings. The term implies that the
first word merely changes its function and no new word appears. It
isn’t possible.
The
word conversion
we
use talking about this way of word-formation is not perfect as well.
It means the transformation of something into another thing, the
disappearance of the first word. But the old and the new words exist
together.
The
largest group
related through conversion consists of verbs
converted from nouns.
The relations of the conversion pair in this case can be of the
following kind:
1)
instrumental relations;
2)
relations reflecting some characteristic of the object;
3)
locative relations;
4)
relations of the reverse process, the deprivation of the object.
The
second major division of converted words is deverbial
nouns
(nouns converted from verbs).
They
denote:
1)
an instance of some process;
2)
the object or the result of some action;
3)
the place where the action occurs;
4)
the agent or the instrument of the action.
Conversion
is not only a highly productive but also a particularly English way
of word-building. There are a lot of words in the English language
that are short and morphologically unmarked (don’t indicate any
part of speech). By short words we mean monosyllables, such words are
naturally more mobile and flexible than polysyllables.
In
English verbs and nouns are specially affected by conversion.
Conversion has restrictions. It’s impossible to use conversion if
verbs cannot represent some process as a succession of isolated
actions. Besides, the structure of the first word shouldn’t be
complicated.
Conversion
is typical not only of nouns, verbs and adjectives, but other parts
of speech as well, even such minor elements as interjections and
prepositions or shortened words.
Shortening
1.
General problems of shortening.
2.
Peculiarities of shortenings.
Shortening
stands apart from other ways of word-formation because it doesn’t
produce new words. It produces variants of the same word. The
differences between the new and the original word are in style,
sometimes in their meaning.
There
are two major groups of shortenings (colloquial and written
abbreviations). Among shortenings there can be polysemantic units as
well.
Shortenings
are classified a) according to the position of the shortened part of
the word (clipped words), b) into shortened word combinations, c)
into abbreviations, d) into blendings.
Among
clipped words there are cases of apocope, aphaeresis, and syncope.
Abbreviations can be read as in the alphabet, as one word.
The
Semantic Structure of English Words
1.General
problems of semasiology. The referential and the functional
approaches to the meaning of English words.
2.Types
of meaning.
3.Change
of meaning.
4.Polysemy.
5.Homonymy.
6.Synonyms,
antonyms and other semantic groupings.
The
branch of linguistic which specializes in the study of meaning is
called semantics or semasiology. The modern approach to semantics is
based on the fact that any word has its inner form which is called
the semantic structure.
There
are two main approaches to the meaning of a word: referential and
functional.
The
referential approach is based on the notion of the referent (the
object the word is devoted to). It also operates the notions of the
concept and word. The word and the referent are related only through
the concept. The drawback of the approach is in the fact that it
deals with psychology mostly.
According
to the functional approach the meaning of a word depends on the
function of the word in a sentence. The approach is not perfect
because it can help us only to compare the meanings of words.
Speaking about the meaning of a word both approaches should be
combined.
The
meaning of a word can be divided into grammatical
and
lexical.
The latter is divided into denotational
and
connotational
meanings. The denotational meaning gives the general idea which is
characteristic of a certain word. The connotational meaning combines
the emotive colour and the stylistic value of a word.
The
smallest elements of meaning are called semes.
There
are words with either only the denotational or the connotational
meaning.
Causes
of semantic changes can be extra
linguistic and
linguistic.
Extra linguistic causes are historical in their nature. Among
linguistic causes we distinguish discrimination of synonyms,
ellipsis, linguistic analogy.
As
for the nature of semantic changes, it is connected with some sort of
association between the old and the new meanings. These associations
can be of two types: of similarity (linguistic metaphor), of
contiguity (linguistic metonymy).
The
result of semantic changes can be seen in denotational and
connotational meanings. The denotational meaning can be generalized
or specialized. The connotational meaning can be worsened or
elevated.
Most
words are polysemantic. Monosemantic words are usually found among
terms and scientific words. The ability of words to have more than
one meaning is called polysemy.
Polysemy exists only in the language system.
The
semantic structure of a polysemantic word may be described as a
combination of its semantic variants. Each variant can be described
from the point of view of their denotational and connotational
meaning.
Polysemy
is closely connected with the notion of the context
(the minimum stretch of speech which is sufficient to understand the
meaning of a word). The main types of context are lexical and
grammatical.
Homonyms
are words identical in sound and spelling or at least in one of these
aspects, but different in their meaning. According to Profesor
Smirnitsky homonyms can be divided into two groups: full homonyms
(represent the same part of speech and have the same paradigm),
partial homonyms (don’t coincide either in their spelling or
paradigm).
Another
classification of homonyms deals with homophones
and homographs.
The
sources of homonyms are phonetic changes, borrowing, word-building
(especially conversion), shortening.
There
are several classifications of various word groups. The semantic
similarity and polarity are connected with synonyms and antonyms.
Synonyms
are words different in sound-form but similar in meaning. According
to Vinogradov synonyms can be divided ideographic, stylistic and
absolute. A dominant
synonym
(in any row of synonyms) is more frequent in communication and
contains the major denotational component of the synonyms in
question.
Antonyms
are words belonging to the same part of speech with some opposite
meaning.
As
for other groups of words, there are hyponyms, hyperonyms, semantic
fields, thematic groups.
The
development of the English vocabulary
1.The
development of the vocabulary. Structural and semantic peculiarities
of new vocabulary
units.
2.Ways
of enriching the vocabulary.
If
the language is not dead, it’s developing all the time. The items
that disappear are called archaisms.
They can be found among numerous lexical units and grammatical forms.
New
words or expressions, new meanings of older words are called
neologisms.
The introduction of new words reflects developments and innovations
in the world at large and in society.
Apart
from political terms, neologisms come from the financial world,
computing, pop scene, drug dealing, crime life, youth culture,
education.
Neologisms
come into the language through
1)productive
ways of word formation;
2)ways
without any pattern;
3)semantic
changes of old words;
4)borrowing
from other languages.
There
are numerous cases of blending, compounding, conversion. Borrowed
words mostly come from French, Japanese, the American variant of the
English language.
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- Размер: 211 Кб
- Количество слайдов: 39
WORD-GROUPS Lecture
Word-groups vs. phraseological units Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups. The largest two-facet lexical unit comprising more than one word is the word-group observed on the syntagmatic level of analysis. The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary. Functionally and semantically inseparable word-groups like at least, point of view, by means of, take place are phraseological units. Semantically and structurally more independent word-groups a week ago, man of wisdom, take lessons, kind to people are defined as free or variable word-groups or phrases
Valency of words The two main linguistic factors to be considered in uniting words into word-groups are: 1) the lexical valency of words 2) the syntactic valency of words.
Lexical valency Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i. e. in combination with other words. The noun question is often combined with such adjectives as vital, pressing, urgent, disputable, delicate , etc. This noun is a component of a number of other word-groups, e. g. to raise a question, a question of great importance, a question of the agenda, a question of the day , and many others. Lexical valency is the possibility of lexical-semantic connections of a word with other words. Lexical collocability is the realisation in speech of the potential connections of a word with other words.
Lexical valency acquires special importance in case of polysemy as through the lexical valency different meanings of a polysemantic word can be distinguished, e. g. 1. heavy weight (safe, table , etc. ), 2. heavy snow (storm, rain , etc. ), 3. heavy drinker (eater , etc. ), 4. heavy sleep (disappointment, sorrow , etc. ), 5. heavy industry (tanks , etc. ), and so on. These word-groups are called collocations or such combinations of words which condition the realization of a certain meaning
The range of the lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs lift and raise are treated as synonyms, only raise is collocated with the noun question. The verb take may be interpreted as ‘grasp’, ’seize’, ‘catch’, etc. but only take is found in collocations with the nouns examination, measures, precautions , etc. , only catch in catch smb. napping and grasp in grasp the truth.
The restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups. The adjective heavy , e. g. , is combined with the words food, meals, supper , etc. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’. But not all the words with the same component of meaning can be combined with this adjective *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different: pot flowers – комнатные цветы
Syntactic valency — the aptness of a word to appear in different syntactic structures. The minimal syntactic context in which words are used when brought together to form word-groups is described as the pattern of the word-groups. E. g. , the verb to offer can be followed by the infinitive ( to offer to do smth ) and the noun ( to offer a cup of tea ). The verb to suggest can be followed by the gerund ( to suggest doing smth ) and the noun ( to suggest an idea ). The syntactic valency of these verbs is different.
The adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different syntactic valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adjective-Preposition at+Noun : clever at mathematics , whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern. The syntactic valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical, in English to influence a person, a decision, a choice ( verb +noun ) — in Russian влиять на человека, на решение, на выбор ( verb+ preposition+noun ).
T he individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its syntactic valency: Keen + N: keen sight, hearing, etc. Keen + on + N : keen on sports, tennis, etc. Keen + V(inf): keen to know, to find out, etc. Thus word-groups may be regarded as minimal syntactic (or syntagmatic) structures that operate as distinguishing clues for different meanings of a polysemantic word.
INTERDEPENDENCE OF STRUCTURE AND MEANING IN WORD-GROUPS Syntactic structure and pattern of word-groups is the description of the order and arrangement of member-words in word-groups as parts of speech. The syntactic structure of the word-group an old woman, a blue dress, clever man, red flower is an adjective and a noun, i. e. A+N ; The syntactic structure of the word-groups wash a car, read books, take books, build houses – as a verb and a noun, i. e. V+N. The syntactic structure of the word-groups a touch of the sun, a matter of importance — as a preposition and a noun, i. e. N+prp+N.
Structural formulas: 1. V+N: ( to build houses ), 2. V+prp+N: ( to rely on somebody ), 3. V+N+prp+N: ( to hold something against somebody ), 4. V+N+V(inf. ): ( to make somebody work ), 5. V+ V(inf. ): ( to get to know ), and so on.
Syntactic structure of word-groups Word-groups may be described through the order and arrangement of the component members: To see sth – verbal-nominal group; To see to sth – (If you see to something that needs attention, you deal with it) verbal-prepositional-nominal, etc.
Word-groups may be classified according to their headwords into: 1. Nominal: red flower ; 2. Adjectival: kind to people ; 3. Verbal: to speak well , etc. The head is not necessarily the component that occurs first in the word-group: great bravery, bravery in the struggle the noun bravery is the head whether followed or preceded by other words.
Thus the structure of word-groups may also be described in relation to the head-word. In this case it is usual to speak of the pattern but not of formulas. E. g. , the patterns of the verbal groups to read a book, to wash a car are to read + N, to wash + N ; to rely on somebod y – to rely+on+N. Syntactic pattern implies the description of the structure of the word-group in which a given word is used as its head.
The interdependence of the pattern and meaning of head-words can be easily perceived by comparing word-groups of different patterns in which the same head-word is used. Three patterns with the verb ‘get’ as the head-word represent three different meanings of this verb: 1. get+ N ( get a letter, information, money , etc. ); 2. get+ to +N ( get to Moscow, to the Institute , etc. ); 3. get+N+V(inf. ) ( get somebody to come, to do the work, etc. ).
Notional member-words are habitually represented in conventional symbols whereas prepositions and other form-words are given in their usual graphic form. This is accounted for by the fact that individual form-words may modify or change the meaning of the word with which it is combined, as in, e. g. : 1. anxious+for+ N ( anxious for news ), anxious+about+ N ( anxious about his health ). the difference in the meaning of the head-word is conditioned by a difference in the pattern of the word-group in which this word is used
Syntactic patterns are classified into: 1. predicative word-groups have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence, they comprise the subject and the predicate, e. g. he went, John works. 2. non-predicative word-groups do not comprise the subject and the predicate and may be subdivided into a) subordinative (e. g. red flower, a man of wisdom ); b) coordinative (e. g. women and children, do or die ).
Classification of word-groups 1. ENDOCENTRIC WORD-GROUPS have one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group. In the word-group blue dress, friendly to people , the head-words are the noun dress and the adjective friendly correspondingly. According to their central members word-groups may be classified into: a) nominal groups or phrases ( blue dress ), b) adjectival groups ( friendly to people ), c) verbal groups ( to sing well ), etc.
2. EXOCENTRIC WORD-GROUPS have no central component and the distribution of the whole word-group is different from either of its members. For instance, the distribution of the word-groups side by side, at first, grow smaller is not identical with the distribution of their component-members, i. e. the component-members are not syntactically substitutable for the whole word-group.
TYPES OF MEANING OF WORD-GROUPS The lexical meaning – the combined lexical meaning of the component words, e. g. a blind man may be described denotationally as the combined meaning of the words blind and man. In most cases the lexical meanings of the word-group predominates over the lexical meanings of its components, e. g. blind alley, blind date. Polysemantic words are used in word-groups only in one of their meanings. These meanings of the component words in such word-groups are mutually interdependent and inseparable. Semantic inseparability of word-groups treats them as self-contained lexical units.
The structural meaning of the word-group is the meaning conveyed mainly by the pattern of arrangement of its components, e. g. , such word-groups as school grammar and grammar school are semantically different because of the difference in the pattern of arrangement of the component words. The structural meaning is the meaning expressed by the pattern of the word-group.
Interrelation of lexical and structural meaning in word-groups The lexical and structural components of meaning in word-groups are interdependent and inseparable. The structural pattern in all the day long, all the night long, all the week long in ordinary usage and the word-group all the sun long is identical. The generalised meaning of the pattern ‘a unit of time’. Replacing day, night, week by another noun the sun structural meaning of the pattern does not change. The group all the sun long functions semantically as a unit of time. But the noun sun included in the group continues to carry the semantic value or the lexical meaning that it has in word-groups of other structural patterns (cf. the sun rays, African sun , etc. ).
It follows that the meaning of the word-group is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its constituents and is inseparable from the meaning of the pattern of their arrangement. a factory hand − ‘a factory worker’ a hand bag − ‘a bag carried in the hand’. Though the word hand makes part of both its lexical meaning and the role it plays in the structure of word-groups is different which accounts for the difference in the lexical and structural meaning of the word-groups under discussion. Thus, the meaning of the word-group is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its constituents and is inseparable from the meaning of the pattern of their arrangement.
Polysemantic and monosemantic patterns Word-groups represented by different structural formulas are as a rule semantically different because of the difference in the grammatical component of meaning. Structurally identical patterns, e. g. heavy+ N , may be representative of different meanings of the adjective heavy which is perceived in the word-groups heavy rain (snow, storm), heavy smoker (drinker), heavy weight (table), etc. all of which have the same pattern — heavy +N.
Structurally simple patterns are as a rule polysemantic, i. e. representative of several meanings of a polysemantic head-word, whereas structurally complex patterns are monosemantic and condition just one meaning of the head-member. The simplest verbal structure V+N and the corresponding pattern are as a rule polysemantic (compare, e. g. take +N (take tea, coffee); take the bus, the tram, take measures, precautions, etc. ), whereas a more complex pattern, e. g. take+to+ N is monosemantic (e. g. take to sports ).
MOTIVATION IN WORD-GROUPS A word-group is lexically-motivated if the combined lexical meaning of the group is deducible from the meaning of its components, e. g. red flower, heavy weight, take lessons. If the combined lexical meaning of a word-group is not deducible from the lexical meanings of its constituent components, such a word-group is lexically non-motivated , e. g. red tape (official bureaucratic methods) take place (occur).
The degree of motivation can be different. Between the extremes of complete motivation and lack of motivation there are innumerable intermediate cases. E. g. , the degree of lexical motivation in the nominal group black market is higher than in black death , but lower than in black dress , though none of the groups can be considered completely non-motivated.
Completely motivated word-groups are correlated with certain structural types of compound words. Verbal groups having the structure V+N , e. g. to read books, to love music , etc. , are habitually correlated with the compounds of the pattern N+(V+er) (book-reader, music-lover); adjectival groups such as A+prp+N (e. g. rich in oil, shy before girls ) are correlated with the compounds of the pattern N+A , e. g. oil-rich, girl-shy.
Seemingly identical word-groups are sometimes found to be motivated or non-motivated depending on their semantic interrelation. Thus, apple sauce is lexically motivated when it means ‘a sauce made of apples’ but when used to denote ‘nonsense’ it is clearly non-motivated. Completely non-motivated or partially motivated word-groups are called phraseological units or idioms.
Summary and Conclusions 1. Words put together to form lexical units make up phrases or word-groups. The main factors active in bringing words together are lexical and syntactic valency of the components of word-groups.
2. Lexical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various collocations. All the words of the language possess a certain norm of lexical valency. Restrictions of lexical valency are to be accounted for by the inner structure of the vocabulary of the English language.
3. Lexical valency of polysemantic words is observed in various collocations in which these words are used. Different meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its lexical valency.
4. Syntactic valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various syntactic structures. All words possess a certain norm of syntactic valency. Restrictions of syntactic valency are to be accounted for by the grammatical structure of the language. The range of syntactic valency of each individual word is essentially delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to and also by the specific norm of syntactic valency peculiar to individual words of Modern English.
5. The syntactic valency of a polysemantic word may be observed in the different structures in which the word is used. Individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its syntactic valency.
6. Structurally, word-groups may be classified by the criterion of distribution into endocentric and exocentric. Endocentric word-groups can be classified according to the head-word into nominal, adjectival, verbal and adverbial groups or phrases.
8. Semantically all word-groups may be classified into motivated and non-motivated. Non-motivated word-groups are usually described as phraseological units.
References 1. Зыкова И. В. Практический курс английской лексикологии. М. : Академия, 2006. – С. 121 -124. 2. Гинзбург Р. З. Лексикология английского языка. М. : Высшая школа, 1979. – С. 64 -74. 3. Антрушина Г. Б. , Афанасьева О. В. , Морозова Н. Н. Лексикология английского языка. М. : Дрофа, 2006. – С. 225 — 256.
WORD-GROUPS