Abbreviation the word structure

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INTRODUCTION

Abbreviation processes in modern English are very active, due primarily to the desire to make thought as capacious as possible. Abbreviations are characteristic not only for scientific discourse, in which a significant number of concepts are expressed through abbreviations, but also for colloquial speech and journalism, where they have their own characteristics of use.

The relevance of this study is due to the lingering interest of linguists to abbreviation processes and the problem of translation, which has recently received a lot of attention in connection with the development of translation computer programs, their improvement and the development of new terminological dictionaries and educational translation books.

The novelty of this study is determined by a thorough and detailed analysis of translation techniques applied to various types of business correspondence, which is a new step towards achieving high-quality translation of abbreviations in various functional styles.

This paperwork examines the problem of translating abbreviations used in fiction, journalism, scientific, characterizing financial and economic texts and business correspondence, a question that is not well studied and deserves in connection with various interpretations and ambiguities of abbreviations presented in two languages, which requires close attention translation.

The emergence of a new abbreviation word is the result of a struggle between two trends: the tendency of language development and the tendency of its preservation. In order to more adequately reflect, reproduce and consolidate new ideas and concepts, language in general and vocabulary in particular are forced

rebuild, differentiate, generate new lexical units.

In the formation of new concepts, morphemes existing in this language, or morphemes and even words borrowed from other languages, can be used, or, which is much less common nowhere and never before existed vocabulary.

Abbreviations of words and phrases to several letters and one letter have recently become increasingly widespread due to the general tendency of the language to save money on the expression of lexical meaning [20]. The constantly growing pace of life, the rapid increase in the flow of information lead to the formation of a

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large number of reductions of various kinds. The modern era is associated with the emergence of new phenomena in art, technology, changes in all areas of human activity. In this regard, there are new concepts, the designation of which, as a rule, is associated with phrases, used in the form of abbreviations to the initial letter of each individual lexical component, and not using the original phrase in full form.

Since the materials of this study are abbreviations, we focus on the features of various discourses that affect the specifics of their use and translation in various kinds of texts.

The necessary theoretical foundation for a multi-aspect study of the nature of stylistic phenomena that affect the abbreviation translation features is created by the achievements of domestic and foreign scholars in the field of general linguistics (А.Вежбицкая, П.Н.Денисов), stylistics (И.В.Арнольд, И.Р. Гальперин), and translation theories (Л.С. Бархударов, В.Н. Комиссаров, Т.А. Казакова).

The purpose of this work is to study the specifics of the reflection in translation from English into Russian of such structurally important translation units as abbreviations.
Drawing attention to the many works devoted to the problem of the lexical meaning of the word and are given in the bibliography, we formulate the tasks of the work as follows:

• consider in general terms the stylistic features of the use of abbreviations in colloquial speech, presented in fiction, journalism, scientific, characterization of financial and economic texts and business correspondence,

• describe the features and different types of abbreviations: slang, common vocabulary, terms,

• find out the features of the translation of abbreviations in fiction, journalism, scientific, characterization of financial and economic texts and business correspondence paying attention to the reasons for the use of specific translation techniques.

The practical significance of the work is that the results of the study and the proposed translation solutions can be used in theoretical and practical classes in lexicology, morphology and translation studies.

The work includes an introduction, two chapters, conclusion and list of references.

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CHAPTER 1. USE OF ABBREVIATIONS AND TRANSLATION PROBLEM

1.1. Classification of abbreviations: slang, common vocabulary, terms.

The abbreviation of phrases, considered by a number of lexicologists as a lexical abbreviation of the phrases [Елисеева 2003], is used quite often when forming new words in English to express meaning in the most capacious form:

VIP = very important person – оченьважныйчеловек

PRO = publicrelationsofficer – сотрудникпосвязям с общественностью

However, the abbreviation is represented more frequently in various terminologies. When shortening words and phrases, in most cases only the first letter of each word is used [Ахманова 2002: 487]. Most often abbreviations are subject to scientific and technical terms, as well as the names of social groups and organizations. Usually abbreviations are used more often than full forms of names. For example, in the field of banking, mathematics and medicine, the following initial abbreviations can be called:

BB = bill book – книгасчетов

NZ (Non Zero)неноль

ARD = acuterespiratorydisease острое респираторное заболевание

If there is an official word in the composition of the phrase (most often the union and), this word is either omitted completely or remains [Ахманова 2002]. In some cases, the abbreviation is not fully implemented:

BandPcost = bidandproposalcost–ценазаявкиипредложения

C and F = cost and freight – стоимостьифрахт

C and I = cost and insurance – стоимостьистраховка

C and F, CAF = cost and freight – стоимостьифрахт

All the abbreviations listed are scientific and business terminology.

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The abbreviations used in journalism are primarily the names of various organizations. Many of which are now part of the common vocabulary:

NASA (NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration); — НАСА (Национальное управление по аэронавтике и исследованию космического пространства);

NATO (NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization) — НАТО (Организация Североатлантического договора);

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries) — ОПЕК (Организациястран-экспортеровнефти).

In addition, slang abbreviations are closely related to the common vocabulary:

VIP = very important person;

PRO = public relations officer …

“In commercial letters written in English,” says E.E. Izrailevich, — there is a large number of standard expressions used to confirm the receipt of business letters, to express a request, when reporting on the sending of documents, catalogs and samples, when referring to documents, etc. Among these stereotypical expressions there are fancy turns and expressions characteristic of commercial jargon”[Израилевич 1992: 7]. Many such cliche and terms are often used in the form of abbreviations:

GDP or gdp — gross domestic product — ВВПилиВВП — валовойвнутреннийпродукт;

CV — curriculumvitae – биографическиеданные

IMF — International Monetary Fund — МВФ — Международныйвалютныйфонд;
CEOs — chiefexecutiveofficers — генеральныедиректора
CFOs — chief financial officers — финансовыедиректора;
COOs — chief operating officers; — главныеоперационныедиректора;
rep — representative — представитель

Among the usual abbreviations, acronyms should also be distinguished, that is, initial abbreviations, pronounced as words and having homonyms in the form of words in a given language. This group of initial cuts began to develop in the twenties of the twentieth century and became widespread after the Second World War [Алексеев 2010]. Acronyms include the following initial abbreviations:
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AIDS (AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome) — СПИД (синдромприобретенногоиммунодефицита);

BASIC (Beginners’ All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) -Бейсик(языкпрограммирования);

In recent years, a new structural type of initial abbreviations of this type has appeared, at the end of which the suffix -y / -ie was added to the initial abbreviation or was the initial abbreviation of the last component of the phrase, for example:

JUPPIE (Japanese Urban Professional Person) — яппи, японскогопроисхождения;

MUPPIE (Middle-aged Urban Professional Person) — городскойжительсреднихлетсвободнойпрофессии (юрист, врач, преподавательит.п.);
as well as educational types:

DINKY (DoubleIncomeNoKidsYet) — семья, гдеобасупругаработают, адетейпоканет;
NELKY (NoIncomeLotsofKids) — безработныесбольшойсемьей;
CARD (CampaignAgainstRacialDiscrimination) — движениепротиврасовойдискриминации;
CLASS (Computer-basedLaboratoryforAutomatedSchoolSystems) — класспрограммированногообучениясприменениемэлектронно-вычислительныхустройств;
NOW (National Organization for Women) — Национальнаяорганизацияженщин;
SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder) — хандравзимниемесяцы;
SALT (StrategicArmsLimitationTalks) — переговорыпоограничениюстратегическихвооружений (ОСЕ);

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STOPP (SocietyofTeachersOpposedtoPhysicalPunishment) — Обществоучителей, выступающихпротивтелесныхнаказанийвшколе;

WAY (World Assembly of Youth) — Всемирнаяорганизациямолодежи;

WOMAN (World Organization for Mothers of All Nations) — Всемирнаяорганизацияматерей.

PIPPY (Person Inheriting Parents’ Property) — человек, разбогатевшийпослеполучениянаследства;

WOOPIE (Well-Off Older People) — зажиточныепожилыелюди;

YEEPIE (Youthful Energetic Elderly People) — пожилыелюдиполныеэнергии, частопутешествующие.

Such abbreviations can be called abbreviated-derivative (suffixal) formations [Мешков 1976].

However, the most common type of abbreviation of words is an apocope, i.e. truncation of the end of a word.

Among the abbreviations of this type stands out a group of nouns ending in -о, such as:

condo from condominium; – откондоминиума

demofrom demonstration — отдемонстрации

disco from discotheque–отдискотеки

intro from introduction — отвведения;

info from information – отинформации;

memo from memorandum – отмеморандума

panto from pantomime – отпантомимы

polio from poliomyelitis – отполиомиелита

гесоfromreconnaissance – отразведки

retro отretrospective — от ретроспективы
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steno from 1) stenographist; 2) stenography–отстенографист; 2) стенография

video from 1) videoplayer; 2) videofilm. – отвидеоплеера; 2) видеофильм

In all the abbreviations listed above, the element o forms part of the complete framework. By analogy with such abbreviations, lexical abbreviations are formed, where the element o is added to the abbreviated part of a word and is a kind of suffix [Елисеева 2003], for example:

Afro from African — изАфрики

ammo from ammunition — отбоеприпасов

combo from combination — изкомбинации

duo from duet — издуэта

muso from musician–отмузыканта

resto from restaurant — изресторана

smoke from smoking interval –перерывдлякурения

Among the new words, there are other forms of the apokopa [Елисеева 2003], namely: the first syllable is used without changes, for example:

beaut from beautiful – красиваявещь;

i’ab from fabulous — потрясающий;

fratfrom fraternity — братство (студенчество);

frank QT frankfurter — сосиска;

lib from liberation — освобождение;

mag from magazine — журнал;

met from meteorologist — метеоролог;

mod from modern person –модник, модница;

narcfrom narcotic — наркотик;

pol from politician — опытныйполитик;

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progfromprogressiveperson — «передовая» личность (с ироническим оттенком);

prom from promenade — балл;

teen from teenager — подросток;

urbfromurban– большой современныйгород.

Similar lexical abbreviations are widely used in slang:
Undies = underwear;

Tot = totalisator …

In some cases, the abbreviation of the word is not shortened to the initial letter, but loses only one or another of its parts (Tot = totalisator), which can be modified (Undies = underwear) [Мешков 1976].

Abbreviation is very characteristic of proper names [Андреева2004]. Formed new words give the conversation a more intimate and familiar character: Benjamin / Ben; Albert, Gilbert, Herbert, Hubert / Bert; Desmond / Des; Geoffrey / Geoff; Geffrey / Geff; Joseph / Joe; Leonard / Len; Elizabeth / Lisa, Liza; Gillian / Gill …

These abbreviations of proper names are often found in colloquial speech and fiction.

In addition to lexical abbreviations, examples of which are given above, there are also a number of “graphic abbreviations” in modern English [Williams 1992]: des res (desirable residence); pedxing (pedestrian crossing); xrds (cross roads) …

These abbreviations are very often used in business correspondence.

1.2. The problem of adequate translation of abbreviations

The genre-stylistic translation rate is determined by V.N. Komissarov as “the requirement that the translation corresponds to a dominant function and stylistic features, the type of text to which the translation belongs” [Комисаров 1990: 229], largely determining the necessary level of equivalence and the dominant function,
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which is the main task of the translator and the most important quality assessment criterion his works.

 “The style of individual varieties of translated material,” notes A.V. Fedorov — manifested in the features specific to him it is in the system of a given language that requires functional, rather than formal, correspondences to be translated. For the scientific text — both in the original and in translation — the important role of the term and compliance with the norms of terminology in a given language are characteristic, for science presupposes an exact terminological expression of concepts ”[Федоров 1983: 206].

“Reproduction of the language content of the original at different levels of equivalence may have different effects on the ability of the translation receptor to recreate the specific contextual meaning of the original. The role of the specific environment of communication and individual knowledge and experience of the receptor in the formation of a specific contextual sense is so great that it can be maintained with a significant variation of language content and, conversely, can vary considerably within the maximum preservation of the original content plan. It should also be borne in mind that the belonging of a receptor to another linguistic group may in itself deprive it of any knowledge that the original receptor has and is necessary for a complete interpretation of the linguistic content of the source text. Here it is already necessary to communicate this knowledge to the translation receptor by including them in the content of the text or in extra-text references and notes ”[Комисаров 2000: 57].

 “The ratio of equivalence and adequacy in each act of translation is determined by the choice of strategy that the translator makes based on a number of factors that make up the translation situation. Among these factors, the purpose of translation, the type of text being translated, and the nature of the intended translation receptor are of most importance [Комисаров 2000: 114].

In this regard, it is necessary to take into account the knowledge of abbreviations of the target audience. For example, these abbreviations will be clear to everyone:

UNO (United Nations Organization) — ООН

NATO [‘neitau] (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) — НATO

They do not need to be given in full.

misunderstanding, and therefore when translating when they are first used, it is desirable to bring them in full lexical form.

CAM (Computer-AidedManufacture) — производство, основанное на применении компьютерной техники;

GASP (GroupAgainstSmokers’ Pollution) — организация, борющаяся против загрязнения окружающей среды;

IATEFL (InternationalAssociationofTeachersofEnglishasaForeignLanguage) — Международная организация учителей английского языка как иностранного (американская организация учителей
английского языка для иностранцев).

The main goal of the translation is to achieve adequacy. Adequate, or, as it is also called, equivalent translation, is such a translation that is carried out at a level necessary and sufficient to transmit an unchanged plan of content while observing the corresponding plan of expression, that is, the norms of the translating language [Казакова 2002].

By definition, A.V. Fedorov, there are three most characteristic cases:

1. “In the language of translation there is no dictionary conformity to one or another word of the original (in general or in its given meaning).

2. Conformity is incomplete, i.e. only partially covers the meaning of the word of the original language.

3. Different words in the source language correspond to different meanings of the multivalued word in the translation language, which to one degree or another accurately convey them ”[Федоров 1983: 54].

All these three cases are very characteristic for the translation of abbreviations that require to take into account the macrocontext (the genre of the text to be translated) and the microcontext (the nearest lexical environment).

and not from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome; (СПИД, синдромприобретённогоиммунодефицита).

Findings

Thus, the tendency to save, to abandon the use of other morphological means in the formation of new words is reflected in the use of such a method of word formation as an abbreviation.

The abundance of office clichés in the form of abbreviations is very characteristic of business correspondence.

The existence of special terms, primarily abbreviations, is considered to be a common characteristic of texts of a journalistic, scientific, and business nature. In artistic texts, abbreviations are also often used. This is an important feature of the conversational style presented in literature. The most important requirement for the adequacy of the translation of abbreviations is the requirement for a translator to choose the most concise, but at the same time understandable target audience equivalents, which in many cases requires the use of a composite phrase, rather than an abbreviation.

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CHAPTER 2. SPECIFICS OF THE USE AND TRANSFER OF ABBREVIATURES TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE CONTEXT

2.1. Features of the use and translation of abbreviations in fiction

In fiction, quite often abbreviated proper names are used, for example, Ben instead of Benjamin, Bert instead of Albert, Bertram, Herbert, Robert, which, like ordinary proper names, are translated using transcription or transliteration.

Ben’s a good runner; few seamen run better than Ben. He should run him down, hand over hand, by the powers! (R. L. Stevenson, ‘Treasure Island’, ch. VIII) — Бен — отличныйбегун. Вряд ли кто из моряков мог бы с ним состязаться. Клянусь, он очень быстро поймает черного Пса, не успеешь глазом моргнуть!

In the examples presented, the translation of the abbreviated name of the proper Ben is carried out by recreating the translation of the pronunciation and spelling of the given proper name, which leads to the same result (Ben).

 ‘Now, Bert, what’s the idea of this eloping?’ demanded Mr. Bunting, whose weakness was for striking the moral note in and out of season. (R. Greenwood, ‘Mr. Bunting in the Promised Land’, ch. 21) — — Послушай, Берт, какойсмыслночьютайнобежатьсвозлюбленной? — вопрошалмистерБантинг. Егослабостьюбыломорализироватькстатиинекстати.

Transcription and transliteration is again used, although it would also be possible to translate the abbreviated proper name in its full form, but it would have to compensate for the loss of expressiveness associated with the use of this version of the name indicating trust or familiar relationship between the interlocutors.

Geoff said at once that she looked most awfully well, tweeds suited her down to the ground. (R. Aldington, ‘The Colonel’sDaughter’, part V, ch. 2) — Джефф не задумываясь выпалил, что Джорджи выглядит чертовски здорово и что костюм из твида ей очень идет.
And again, when translating the abbreviated name of your own Geoff (Geoffrey), transcription techniques are used.

We collected Mike from where he and Hertz was [- were] mixing it and we went like a Bondi tram. (K. Tennant, ‘TheHoneyFlow’, ch. 13). 14
— Мы отправились к месту драки Майка с Герцем, посадили Майка в машину и быстро уехали.

The abbreviation Mike (from Michael) is again transmitted using transcription. Replacing it with “Michael” or the Russian analogues “Misha”, “Mikhail” would in many respects worsen the quality of the translation.

Piercing morning air came into the hall where they were standing so that Aunt Kate said: ‘Close the door, somebody’. (Ch. Dickens, NicholasNickleby, 1838-39) — Пронизывающий холодом утренний воздух проник в комнату, где они стояли, и тетя Кейт сказала: «Кто-нибудь, закройте дверь».

The abbreviation Kate (from Catherine) is translated using transcription. The use in translation of the Russian analogues of the given name of their own “Katya” and “Ekaterina” could create in the reader a misconception about the nationality of the heroine, therefore they are not used.

You’re a hell of a guy, Ron. (J. Jones, ‘Go to the Widow-Maker’, ch. 26) — Вымировойпарень, Рон.

The abbreviations Ron (from Ronald) and Ed (from Edgar, Edmund, Edward, Edwin) are again reproduced in translation using transcription or transliteration.

However, in the case of the use of the abbreviation Ed, there is a homonymy, since this word is also an abbreviation on behalf of the common editor, which in the following case indicates the need to reflect the semantics of this noun in the translation.

I have six more stories to do for the American Magazine, and ye Ed [= the Editor] has put me right out of my stride by asking me to make them about American characters, little knowing that if I try to do American stuff, the result is awful. (P. G. Wodehouse, ‘PerformingFlea’, ‘1931’) —

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Мне нужно было написать еще шесть рассказов для «Американ мэгазин», но редактор озадачил меня, попросив, чтобы в этих рассказах фигурировали американцы в американской обстановке. Ему было невдомек, что если я берусь за американскую тему, то получается что-то ужасное.

Поскольку в русском языке у слова «издатель», аналога для еditor, нет сокращения, оно воспроизводится в переводе в своем полном виде.

«I wouldn’t have believed it,» Ken said, and cradled the phone. (R. Stark, Blackbird, 1969) — «Я бы в это не поверил», — сказал Кен и положил трубку.

A similar situation occurs when using the lexical abbreviation of the telephone phone.

On the dot of seven o’clock the next morning the phone rang. (E. Caldwell, ‘Love and Money’, ch. I) — Наутротелефонзазвонилровновсемьчасов.

In translation, this abbreviation is reproduced completely, and there is a substitution of a part of speech, since this abbreviation is used in the definition function.

Don’t repeat a word of this, Smeeth, for the love ofMike! (J. B. Priestley, ‘Angel Pavement’, ch. IX) — Но, ради бога. Смит, никому об этом ни слова!

When using the lexical abbreviation in the phraseologism for the love of Mike (= for the love of God, or Heaven, or Pete), it becomes necessary to define the phraseologism as a translation unit, while retaining its components (abbreviation) in translation turns out to be superfluous. As a correspondence to this inter-phrase phraseologism, they usually use turns of “радибога!, видитбог!; чёртвозьми!”, which contains no lexical abbreviations.

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2.2. Features of the use and translation of abbreviations in journalistic texts

For journalism is characterized by the frequent use of abbreviations, which are rarely found in fiction. When translating them, in contrast to the translation of abbreviated proper names, transliteration is almost never used. As a few examples of its use can be cited:

NASA = NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration — НАСА, Национальное агентство по аэронавтике и исследованию космического пространства (государственная организация США, занимающаяся исследованием космоса)

OPEC = Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries — ОПЕК, ОСЭН, Организациястран-экспортёровнефти

NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization — НАТО, Североатлантическийсоюз

However, in these examples other methods of translation are also allowed: tracing (North Atlantic — Североатлантический) + logical synonymy and word omission (Treaty Organization — union).

When translating abbreviations, the translator usually has to translate the lexical unit in its full form, usually with a tracing, and then create an abbreviation for this phrase in the form used in the translation language: OPEC> Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries>Организациястран-экспортёровнефти>ОСЭН.

In the latter case, however, it is advisable to use the transliteration of the English abbreviation, OPEC, because of its greater clarity for the reader who is used to the designation of this organization in newspapers and news programs.

Transcription is also used when translating the abbreviation SMS (Short Message Service),
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becausethedecryptionofthisabbreviation (служба коротких сообщений, служба маленьких сообщений, служба мобильных сообщений (технология, позволяющая посылать и принимать с помощью мобильного телефона короткие текстовые сообщения) wouldbelesscleartothereader.

SMS has long been popular in Europe. I read articles a few years ago about teenagers starting to incorporate SMS shorthand into their spoken vocabulary. It wasn’t been a rage, but it wasn’t a rule. SMS has been slowly been making its way to the U.S.

SMS has long been popular in Europe. A few years ago I learned that teenagers had replenished their vocabulary with SMS shorthand. And, obviously, the teachers’ patience broke when they heard this incomprehensible slang. SMS slowly made their way to the United States.

In some cases, the abbreviation is left without translation or transmitted through explication, which occurs when using:

• • XLfromeXtraLarge — «verylarge» «очень большой» (обозначение размера одежды)

• Generation Y = Gen Y; = gen-y generation igryk (named by analogy with the «generation X» (Generation X); Americans and Canadians born in the period of intensive growth of high technologies (1980s — 90s), did not know the economic downturns and needs)

• Generation X = Gen X; = gen-x X generation (after the title of the Canadian writer Douglas Copeland’s novel of the same name; Americans and Canadians born during the demographic decline of 1961–1981 that followed the period of the post-war demographic explosion; a generation that grew up in conditions of increasing comfort and received a good education, but indifferent to money and professional career, not found a use in life)

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• Gen-Xer = GenerationX’er — представитель поколения икс

• GenerationXL (suchassurfingtheinternet) andplayingcomputergames) — поколение икс-эл (поколение Интернет-пользователей и любителей электронных игр)

The use of explication is legitimate and permissible, since the meaning of these lexical units of most readers of newspapers and magazines may not be clear.

Explication and / or tracing of the name in its full form without a subsequent abbreviation (using part of a word or abbreviation) is used when translating a significant part of abbreviations used in journalism.

• A&R — artistsandrepertoire — артисты; профессиональныемузыканты, певцы, танцоры, актёры, художникииихрепертуар

ThepainterevolvedhisideasaboutformandcolouroutofearlierA&R. — Этотхудожникпочерпнулсвоиидеиоформеицветеизработболеестарыхмастеров

The use of indie in lexical abbreviation in journalism obliges the translator to explication, since its translation using transliteration would not be understandable to a wide readership.

indie — (independent labels) –индии, т.е.

• • a) a common name for small independent record studios that record alternative rock music or jazz that is not interesting for commercial reasons to large studios — общееназваниедлянебольшихнезависимыхстудийграмзаписи, которыезаписываютальтернативнуюрок-музыкуилиджаз, неинтереснуюпокоммерческимсоображениямкрупнымстудиям
• • b) music recorded at such independent studios — музыка, котораязаписываетсянатакихнезависимыхстудиях
  • c) = indie-rock, indy direction in alternative rock music (developed in the 1990s)
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  направлениевальтернативнойрок-музыке (сложилосьв 1990-егг.)

Rap encountered some industry resistance, giving rise to many indie labels.

However, due to the cumbersome translation with the help of explication, as we can see, preference is often given to transcriptions with the replacement of part of speech as necessary.

The use of the pro (from professional) lexical abbreviation allows the use of translator for translating “professional” with a possible lexical abbreviation to “pro” and explication “expert in his field”, “who knows how to do something perfectly.”

When it comes to typing, Robert ‘s a pro. — Робертотличнопечатаетнамашинке.

When using abbreviations, the translator usually has to trace the phrase that lies behind each individual abbreviation, and then use the abbreviation for the Russian name, provided that the abbreviation is known to a wide audience.

NSA (fromNationalSecurityAgency) — Управлениенациональнойбезопасности (УНБ)
Her plastic encryption key was in its proper slot, and the phone was already linked and synchronized with another such phone at NSA headquarters. [TheNewYorkTimes 16-10-2009]

 Её пластиковый ключ шифрования был вставлен в нужное гнездо, так что телефон оказался соединенным и синхронизированным с другим подобным аппаратом в штаб-квартире управления национальной безопасности.

OSCE (from Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) — ОБСЕ (ОрганизацияпобезопасностиисотрудничествувЕвропе)

20

Newly available accounts by OSCE independent military observers of the beginning of the war between Georgia and Russia this summer call into question the longstanding Georgian assertion that it was acting defensively against separatist and Russian aggression. [TheNewYorkTimes 6-11-2008]

Появившиеся недавно оценки независимых военных наблюдателей из ОБСЕ вновь заставляют обратиться к вопросу о том, как началась война между Россией и Грузией, и ставят под сомнение заявления Грузии о том, что она лишь оборонялась от нападений России и сепаратистов.

When using abbreviations from numerals in translation, either the full arithmetic number or the abbreviation of a given word, which is customary for the target language, is used.

Vladimir Putin on Thursday announced a $20bn economic stimulus package for Russia… [TheFinancialTimes – 21 November 2008]

Владимир Путин сообщил в четверг о пакете мер по стимулированию российской экономики на сумму 20 млрд долларов…

2.3. Features of the use and translation of abbreviations in scientific texts

The use of abbreviations in scientific texts in most cases is due to the presence in the original language of similar terms, the translation of which obliges to calking, taking into account the terminology used in the language of translation. In the presence of a similar term of a different structure, its use is preferable to the use of tracing paper from an English term, which may be incomprehensible to a wide range of specialists in this scientific field.

BASIC = Beginners’ All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code — Бейсик (языкпрограммирования)

CSO (телекоммуникации)
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• • ICaltechSubmillimeterObservatory — радиообсерватория на базе радиотелескопа субмиллиметрового диапазона с диаметром зеркала 10,2 м (США)

• II color separation overlay цветоваярирпроекция

• IIIcomputingservicesoffice компьютерный сервисный комплекс

• • CSO (Polytechnic) colorseparationoverlay цветовая рирпроекция, цветная электронная рирпроекция

The presence of a wide range of scientific fields obliges the translator to take into account the context — the definition of a specific scientific field with which one or another abbreviation. Neglecting this may result in too many matches for each individual abbreviation.

For example, in the polytechnic sphere, the following interpretations of the abbreviation C can be found:

C (политехн.)

Icapacitance (электрическая) емкость

IIcapacitor конденсатор

IIIcapacity 1) (электрическая) ёмкость 2) производительность 3) мощность

IV carbon углерод

V case 1) корпус 2) регистр

VI cathod катод

VII cell элемент, ячейка

VIII chrominance сигнал цветности
IX circuit схема; цепь

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X code код
XI coefficient 1) коэффициент 2) константа, постоянная (величина)

XII coil катушка (индуктивности); секция обмотки

XIII collector коллектор

XIV computer электронно-вычислительная машина, ЭВМ

XV concentration 1) концентрация 2) обогащение

XVI conductivity удельная электрическая проводимость

XVII conductor 1) проводник 2) провод

XVIII contact контакт

XIX control 1) управление; регулирование 2) контроль 3) орган управления; регулятор

XX coulomb кулон, Кл

XXI course простирание

XXII crosscut квершлаг; орт

XXIII current (электрический) ток

XXIV cycle цикл; период

Even a change in the spelling of an abbreviation (using a capital letter instead of a capital letter) entails a change in the understanding of this term — from:

I capacitance 1) емкость 2) емкостное сопротивление

II capacity 1) емкость 2) производительность 3) пропускная способность

III case 1) корпус 2) регистр

IV circuit схема; цепь; контур
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V coefficient коэффициент

VI current (электрический) ток

VII contact контакт

VIII cycle цикл; период

When using this abbreviation in the field of high technology, many of these values ​​are discarded, but the possibility of new interpretations arises:

C (высокаятехнология)

1) (see) смотри, посмотри, увидимся (аббревиатура, принятаявэлектроннойпочте (например, C U later)
2) C language is a procedural programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie from 1969 to 1973 at Bell Laboratories. ISO / IEC 9899 standard. Widely used for developing system programs: operating systems, compilers, software for embedded systems. The forerunners of C were languages ​​B (named for Bell Lab.) AndBCPLK&R

3) C– диапазон Ku

4) (cyan) голубой, циан один из основных (первичных) цветов системы CMYK

 When using the abbreviation C in telecommunication, other interpretations arise again:

I capacitance, capacity электрическаяемкость

II capacitor конденсатор

III cathode катод

IV cell элемент, ячейка

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V chirp линейно-частотно-модулированный импульс, ЛЧМ-импульс

VI chrominance цветность

VII circuit 1) схема; цепь; контур 2) линия 3) канал 4) сеть

VIII code код

IX coefficient коэффициент, константа

X coil 1) катушка; электромагнитная катушка 2) спираль 3) виток; обмотка 4) трансформатор

XI collector 1) коллектор 2) токоприемник, электроприемник 3) анод

XII conductivity удельная электропроводность

XIII conductor проводник

XIV container контейнер (для хранения транспортных сигналов)

XV control контроль; регулировка; управление

XVI core 1) сердечник (катушки, трансформатора) 2) жила

XVII coulomb кулон, Кл

XVIII current электрический ток

XIX cycle цикл; такт; период, периодический процесс

The use of the abbreviation C in medicine again changes the options for its possible interpretation:

1) [calorie] калория

2) [capacity] мощность; емкость

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3) [carbon] углерод

4) [cathode] катод

5) [center] центр

6) [coefficient] коэффициент

7) [color] цвет, окраска

[concentration] концентрация

The need to take into account the context does not disappear when using abbreviations from phrases:

HT (hightechnology, high-tech, hi-tech) — высокая технология, технология высокой сложности (обладающая наивысшими качественными показателями по сравнению с лучшими мировыми аналогами)

high-techcompany — компания высоких технологий, компания «хай-тек»

HT (Hyper-Threadin)g — гиперпотоковость; «сверхмногопотоковая», гиперпотоковая (гиперпоточная) технология, HT -технология название новой технология, реализованной в процессоре Pentium 4. (она использует возможности незадействованных регистров и блоков процессора, позволяя ему работать до 30% производительнее. Благодаря этому настольный ПК может выполнять два разных приложения одновременно или одно приложение, но быстрее, чем однопроцессорная система. Для операционной системы этот процессор выглядит как два параллельно работающих процессора)

HT (программирование) – horizontaltabulation горизонтальное табулирование
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HT (телекоммуникации):

• I handset наушники, головной телефон
• II hightension высокое напряжение
• III horizontal tabulation; horizontal tabulation character символгоризонтальнойтабуляции

HT (политехн.) — horizontal tabulation (character) символгоризонтальнойтабуляции

HT (строительство) — hightension высокое напряжение

HT (энергетика) — 1. [hightemperature] высокая температура 2. [high tension] высокоенапряжение

Similar difficulties arise when translating the term PR, which, when used in advertising, often remains without translation — for example, PR technology — PR technology.

The use of PR in high technology indicates the possibility of interpreting it as:

• payroll расчетная [платежная] ведомость
• printregister регистр печати
• printrestore возобновление печати
• programregister регистр команд

The use of PR in telecommunications implies a greater likelihood of the following interpretations:

• I polarizedrelay поляризованное реле
• II protectionratio защитное отношение
• III pseudorandom псевдослучайный (напр. о шуме)
• IV pulserate частота следования импульсов

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In mechanical engineering there is a high probability of interpreting PR as:

• patternrecognition распознавание образов
• potentialrequirements потенциальные запросы, потенциальные требования
• printrestore восстановление печати

In energy PR, most likely, is [preventive replacement] preventive replacement (of elements).

Even widely known abbreviations are far from clear:

‘Aids’ (от ‘acquired immune deficiency syndrome’) — СПИД, синдромприобретённогоиммунодефицита

AIDS (от automated information directory service) — автоматизированнаяслужбасправочнойинформации

AIDS (от aircraftintegrateddatasystem) — бортовая комплексная система регистрации данных

AIDS (от administrativeinformationdatasystem) — административная информационная система

AIDS (от advancedintegrateddatasystem) — усовершенствованная интегрированная информационная система

AIDS (от advancedinteractivedebuggingsystem) — усовершенствованная интерактивная отладочная система

AIDS (от automatedinformationdisseminationsystem) — автоматизированная система избирательного распределения информации

AIDS (от automatedinventorydistributionsystem система) — распределения средств материально-технического обеспечения

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The use of this term in medicine narrows the circle of interpretations: ‘Aids’ (from the acquired immune deficiency syndrome) — СПИД, синдромприобретённогоиммунодефицита

It was largely responsible for reducing the incidence of AIDS. — ШирокомасштабноеприменениеданноголекарствапривелокуменьшениюслучаевзаболеванияСПИДом.

There are signs that this new alliance is emerging. “The process of dialogue and collaboration with WHO headquarters in Geneva has already been reestablished and is improving constantly,” says Sunil Deepak, medical director of the Italian leprosy NGOAssociazioneItaliana Amici di Raoul Follerau [http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv].

Есть очевидные признаки того, что этот новый союз появляется. “Процесс диалога и сотрудничества с Всемирной организацией здравоохранения (ВОЗ), главный офис которой находится в Женеве, был уже продолжен и постоянно улучшается,” говорит СунилДипак, медицинский директор итальянской неправительственной организацииAssociazioneItalianaAmicidiRaoulFollerau, занимающейся борьбой с проказой.

In this case, in order to avoid misunderstanding, the full and abbreviated name of the scientific organization — WHO [World Health Organization] — Всемирнаяорганизацияздравоохранения (ВОЗ)and the non-medical term NGO — non-governmental organization (неправительственнаяорганизация).

It was not a long period of time. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/308/6924]

Butitwasnotlongbefore we arranged a meeting with the GP and his team to discussher care, that I found it difficult to withstandthe force of her pleading

29

and distress. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/308/6924]

Но незадолго до того, как мы устроили встречу с терапевтом и его командой для обсужденияухода за ней, мне было трудно противостоять ее просьбам, учитывая ее тяжелое недомогание.

Again in translation, the correspondence for the abbreviation GP — general practitioner will be a word or phrase in its full form “general practitioner”, “therapist” due to the absence of an abbreviation of this concept in the language of translation.

2.4. Features of use and translation of abbreviations in financial and economic texts and business correspondence

Of particular interest in the translation of economic texts is related to the transfer of financial and economic terminology, presented in the form of abbreviations and abbreviations, which can be transmitted into Russian using transcription and transliteration. Tracing (NT-high technologies –высокиетехнологии) (with the possible movement of words and replacing parts of speech) and explications (with the words: e-banking — электронныебанковскиеоперации).

In financial and economic texts and business correspondence, the use of abbreviations is extremely common, and in communication in English, in Russian languages, in addition, there is a need for business messages to be expressed as briefly as possible, and therefore in translation, as capabilities, you want to use the shortest possible match.

However, this is not always possible, for example, C as part of the acronym is used to designate the sound combination — CU2moro — See You Tomorrow (увидимсязавтра). There is no such abbreviation in the translation language.
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In the economy as a whole, the use of the abbreviation C is very, very ambiguous:

1) [consulate] консульство; представительство

2) [confidential] доверительный; секретный

3) [confinement] арест; заключение

4) [contract] договор

5) [copy] копия; экземпляр

6) [copyright] авторское (или издательское) право

7) [correct] верно, правильно

[correction] исправление; поправка

9) [county] графство; округ

10) [cum] с; включая

11) [current] текущий, существующий, действующий

Only the context can help the correct understanding of this abbreviation.

In marketing, the abbreviation C has the following meanings:

 a) (рейтинг, присваиваемыйоблигациямипривилегированнымакциямагентством «СтандардэндПурз»; данныйрейтингприсваиваетсябумагам, платежипокоторымпрекращены) See: bond rating, preference share, Standard and Poor’s, Standard and Poor’s ratings, AAA, AA, BBB, BB, B, CCC, CC, D, not rated

б) (рейтинг обыкновенных акций самого низкого качества, присваиваемый агентством «Стандард энд Пурз»)

31

в) (самый низкий рейтинг облигаций, присваиваемый агентством «Мудиз»)

As we can see, even in narrow areas of the economy, many abbreviations are far from unequivocal.

The use of seemingly well-known abbreviations is also associated with the risk of incorrect interpretation of the term abbreviation.

So, PR matters:

• от publicrelations ) связи с общественностью, отношения с общественностью

Shehasover 10 years’ experienceinPR. — Она работает в области связей с общественностью уже более десяти лет.

• (от publicrelations ) пиар, реклама

WeneededsomegoodPR. — Нам нужно было немного хорошей рекламы.

• (от proportionalrepresentation) пропорциональное представительство
• (от PuertoRico) Пуэрто-Рико (Почтовое сокращение названия Содружества Пуэрто-Рико, находящегося в отношениях «свободной ассоциации» с США).
• (от pair) пара

contactingPR — контактная пара

• (от preferenceshare)- привилегированная акция (акция, дающая владельцу преимущественное право на получение дивидендов и на часть капитала компании (в случае банкротства) по сравнению с обыкновенной акцией; имеет фиксированный размер дивиденда и обычно не дает права голоса; в законодательстве США существует тенденция не делить
  32

акции на простые и привилегированные, а классифицировать акции на классы, в рамках которых акционерам предоставляются те или иные права)

Evenmultipartabbreviationsineconomicsarenotalwaysunambiguous:

BandPcost = bidandproposalcosts — (затраты [издержки] по заявкам (не финансируемые заказчиком и не обязательные для исполнения контракта затраты, связанные с подготовкой, представлением и отслеживанием заявок на выполнение государственных и частных заказов или получение грантов)

CandI = costandinsurance — стоимость и страхование (условие внешнеторгового контракта, означающее, что экспортер несет расходы по доставке товара в порт отгрузки и страхованию груза, а фрахт груза до порта назначения оплачивает импортер)

CSO (ChiefSecurityOfficer)- директор по [компьютерной, информационной] безопасности, начальник службы информационной безопасности человек, отвечающий за информационную безопасность организации

CIO

• I от ChiefInformationOfficer 1) (главный) директор по информационным технологиям (отвечающий за приобретение и внедрение новых технологий, за управление информационными ресурсами) 2) главный управляющий по информации
• II от ChiefInvestmentOfficer — главный директор по инвестициям
• IIIот CongressofIndustrialOrganizations — Конгресс производственных профсоюзов США, КПП
• IV от check it out — взгляни-ка!, зацени!
• V от cut it out прекратиэто!
  33

En la correspondenciacomercial, muchos clichés se utilizancomoabreviaturas:TIA (Thanks In Advance) – Спасибозаранее

• ASAP (AsSoonAsPossible) — как можно быстрее, в кратчайший срок, при первой возможности

La traduccióngeneralmentetienequeusar un análogo de estos clichés de negocios en forma léxicacompleta.

• Please, obligemewith a replyASAP. — Сделайте одолжение, ответьте мне как можно скорее.
• In-stockitems will beshippedimmediately (within 48 hoursorless) and anybackordereditems will bedeliveredASAP. — Имеющиеся на складе товары будут отгружены немедленно (в течение 48 часов или менее), а товары, не имеющиеся в данный момент на складе, будут поставлены как только это будет возможно.
• Wemustclear the areaofdebrisASAP. — Нам нужно очистить район от мусора как можно скорее.

The ability to use as an analogue for the abbreviation of the original language an abbreviation in the target language does not always occur.

There are other payment methods: bank bill, bank transfer and others. Payment forms continue to develop along with the development of the global financial system and high technologies (electronic banking, etc.).

The prices depend on the terms of delivery, it can be CIF, FOB, or others. TermsofdeliveryaredescribedinIncoterms.

Цены зависят от условий доставки, это может быть СИФ, ФОБ и т.д. Условия доставки описаны в «Инкотермс».

Here we resort to transliteration of the abbreviations CIF, FOB, Incoterms (CIF, FOB, Incoterms). Instead of transliterating into the latter case, explication could be used, which would make the translation more cumbersome:

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CIF — is one of the basic conditions of export contracts, under which the seller pays the costs of transporting goods to the port of destination and insures them until the right of ownership is transferred to the consignee — одноизбазовыхусловийэкспортныхконтрактов, покоторомупродавецоплачиваетрасходынаперевозкутоваровдопортаназначенияистрахуетихдопереходаправасобственностигрузополучателю;

FOB — a condition according to which the seller undertakes to deliver the goods at his own expense and load them on board the ship — условие, согласнокоторомупродавецобязуетсязасвойсчетдоставитьтоварипогрузитьегонабортсудна;

Incoterms — International rules for the interpretation of trade terms — Международныеправилатолкованияторговыхтерминов.

Findings

Thus, abbreviations are actively used outside the more familiar to them scientific discourse. The reason for using abbreviations is the desire to convey the idea as briefly as possible, as well as the desire to express their friendly, informal attitude towards the interlocutor, forcing the sender to use the interlocutor’s name in abbreviated form, as well as abbreviate the means of expressing speech etiquette.

It is the desire to make a speech message shorter that makes the translator use Russian abbreviations as an analogue. However, the expediency of using the latter is due to the possibility of correct interpretation of these abbreviations by the target audience of each particular style of speech or discourse.

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CONCLUSION

The relevance of studying such methods of word formation as an abbreviation is associated with their differences in the structure of various languages, changes over time in the structure of one language, and the close connection of morphology and semantics.

The abbreviations that currently exist in English, which are the subject of this study, are a relatively recent phenomenon, due primarily to the need to make the text as capacious as possible.

New abbreviations in modern English are formed on the basis of words, phrases, less often — sentences that are the original for the new word. The use of abbreviations in each individual functional style has its own characteristics. So, for example, lexical abbreviations of a word are not more characteristic of the spoken style, but the first few letters of a word are more characteristic, while the shortening of a phrase to the initial letter of each component word is more characteristic of scientific and official business functional styles.

When translating scientific, economic texts, business documentation, the translator is faced with the need to accurately convey the meaning of the translated term-abbreviation. The success of the translation of a term depends on the knowledge of the terminology of the translation language and the original, as well as the breadth of use of individual abbreviations in this discourse.

We should not forget about the peculiarities of the translation of economic terms, abbreviations, the translation of which should take into account changes in business terminology in both languages ​​and at the same time convey the text clearly and stylistically correctly. In addition, you must follow the established standards of speech etiquette and business style of presentation of information.

Since economic documentation should be as comprehensible as possible and fit into the convention of drafting and drafting contracts existing in the Russian language, the use of tracing and transcription / transliteration methods should be limited to those cases when this term is generally accepted, and its wording does not differ from the wording of the English term. In the same cases, when the interpretation of the English and Russian terms for certain reasons do not coincide, there is a need for a descriptive translation and translation comments.
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Explication in translation by the translator of abbreviations is associated with the absence of these concepts in the language of translation and difficulties of interpretation.

Abbreviations, reflecting the specifics of the national culture, may not have an analogue in the language of translation. To reveal their significance in the fullness of their associations is the most important task of a translator who performs a mission aimed at bringing together two different cultures.

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  2. Алексеева И.С. Профессиональный тренинг переводчика. — СПб.: Союз, 2008.- 288с.
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     37
  10. Вежбицкая А. Язык. Культура. Познание. М.: Русские словари, 1996. —416с.
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  16. Денисова Г.В. В мире интертекста: язык, память, перевод. – М.: Азбуковник, 2003. -126с.
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  20. Израилевич Е.Е. Коммерческая корреспонденция и документация на английском языке. – СПб.: Лениздат, 1992. – 440с.
  21. Казакова Т.А. Практические основы перевода. -СПб.: Союз, 2001. – 320с.
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  23. Комиссаров В.Н. Современное переводоведение. -М.: ЭТС &Polyglossum, 2000. – 424с.
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      38

  25. Крюкова Е.И., Голубых И.И., Голубых А.К. Языковое сознание личности в культуре перевода. Ростов-на-Дону: РГПУ, 2004. – 194с.
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      39

  40. Чернов Г. В. К вопросу о передаче безэквивалентной лексики при переводе советской публицистики на английский язык. — «Ученые записки» 1-го МГПИИЯ, т. XVI. — М., 1958. -С. 223-224.
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Список использованных словарей

• 1. Анохина И.Г. Англо-русский коммерческий словарь-справочник. – М.: Моби, 1995.
  2. Королев А. Музыкально-компьютерный словарь. — СПб., 2006.
  3. Словарь. Английские сокращения и английские аббревиатуры — http://www.homeenglish.ru/Abbreviation.htm

40

• 1. Шилов В.Л., Шаров А.А. Словарь компьютерно-музыкальных терминов. — М., 2003.
  2. 21stcenturydictionaryofslang. — NewYork, 1994.
  3. Abbreviations Dictionary — www.acronymfinder.com
  4. Acronym Finder — http://www.acronymfinder.com
  5. Collins English Dictionary. — HarperCollins Publishers, 2006.

Интернет-источники

1. http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv
2. http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/308/6924
3. http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/331/7526
4. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu
5. http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/system/medical/gene_therapy.html
6. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov
7. http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1417780,00.html
8. TheTimes — Адрес в сети Интернет: www.timesonline.co.uk
9. TheFinancialTimes — Адрес в сети Интернет: www.ft.com
10. TheNewYorkTimes — Адрес в сети Интернет: www.nytimes.com

41

In the process of
communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of
shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By
extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In
Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms , initials, blends
are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes
necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible
time.

There are also linguistic
causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of
rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When
borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are
shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy,
e.g. the Latin borrowing «fanaticus» is shortened to «fan» on the
analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc.

There are two main types of
shortenings : graphical and lexical.

Graphical abbreviations

Graphical abbreviations are
the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written
speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are
used for the economy of space and effort in writing.

The oldest group of graphical
abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this type of
abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling
Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English
equivalents are pronounced in the full form,e.g. for example (Latin
exampli gratia), a.m. — in the morning (ante meridiem), No — number
(numero), p.a. — a year (per annum), d — penny (dinarius), lb — pound
(libra), i. e. — that is (id est) etc.

Some graphical abbreviations
of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different
contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced «in the afternoon» (post
meridiem) and «after death» (post mortem).

There are also graphical
abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have
abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English
equivalents in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them
:

a) days of the week, e.g. Mon
— Monday, Tue — Tuesday etc

b) names of months, e.g. Apr —
April, Aug — August etc.

c) names of counties in UK,
e.g. Yorks — Yorkshire, Berks -Berkshire etc

d) names of states in USA,
e.g. Ala — Alabama, Alas — Alaska etc.

e) names of address, e.g. Mr.,
Mrs., Ms., Dr. etc.

f) military ranks, e.g. capt.
-captain, col. — colonel, sgt — sergeant etc.

g) scientific degrees, e.g.
B.A. — Bachelor of Arts, D.M. — Doctor of Medicine . ( Sometimes in
scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, e.g., M.B.
— Medicinae Baccalaurus).

h) units of time, length,
weight, e.g. f. / ft -foot/feet, sec. — second, in. -inch, mg. —
milligram etc.

The reading of some graphical
abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. «m» can be read as:
male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, «l.p.» can
be read as long-playing, low pressure.

Initial abbreviations

Initialisms are the bordering
case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in
the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer
to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g.
J.V. — joint venture. When they are used for some duration of time
they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to
lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a rule pronounced in the
shortened form.

In some
cases the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without
using special dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different
ways. Very often they are expressed in the way they are pronounced in
the language of their origin, e.g. ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand,
United States) is given in Russian as АНЗУС, SALT (Strategic
Arms Limitation Talks) was for a long time used in Russian as СОЛТ,
now a translation variant is used (ОСВ -Договор об
ограничении стратегических вооружений).
This type of initialisms borrowed into other languages is preferable,
e.g. UFO — НЛО, CП — JV etc.

There are three types of
initialisms in English:

a) initialisms with
alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc

b) initialisms which are read
as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.

c)
initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form,
such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computor-based
Laboratory for Automated School System).

Some scientists unite groups
b) and c) into one group which they call acronyms.

Some initialisms can form new
words in which they act as root morphemes by different ways of
wordbuilding:

a) affixation, e.g. AWALism,
ex-rafer, ex- POW, to waafize, AIDSophobia etc.

b) conversion, e.g. to raff,
to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules),

c) composition, e.g. STOLport,
USAFman etc.

d) there
are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an
initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one
is a complete word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V -day etc. In some
cases the first component is a complete word and the second component
is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g.
Three -Ds (Three dimensions) — стереофильм.

Abbreviations of
words

Abbreviation
of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a
new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is
different form the full form of the word. In such cases as »fantasy»
and «fancy», «fence» and «defence» we have different lexical
meanings. In such cases as «laboratory» and «lab», we have
different styles.

Abbreviation does not change
the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion
or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of speech
as the primary word, e.g. prof is a noun and professor is also a
noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet
abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev from to revolve, to tab from to
tabulate etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by
means of conversion from abbreviated nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc.
Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school
slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy, dilly, mizzy
etc. As a rule pronouns, numerals, interjections. conjunctions are
not abbreviated. The exceptions are: fif (fifteen), teen-ager, in
one’s teens (apheresis from numerals from 13 to 19).

Lexical
abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which
is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the
beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the
lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation is called
apocope. Here we can mention a group of words ending in «o», such
as disco (dicotheque), expo (exposition), intro (introduction) and
many others. On the analogy with these words there developed in
Modern English a number of words where «o» is added as a kind of a
suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination) —
небольшой эстрадный ансамбль, Afro
(African) -прическа под африканца etc. In other
cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have
apheresis , e.g. chute (parachute), varsity (university), copter
(helicopter) , thuse (enthuse) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word
is clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine (fan magazine) maths
(mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope. Sometimes we
have a combination of apocope with apheresis,when the beginning and
the end of the word are clipped, e.g. tec (detective), van
(avanguard) etc.

Sometimes shortening
influences the spelling of the word, e.g. «c» can be substituted by
«k» before «e» to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone),
Coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following
cases: fax( facsimile), teck (technical college), trank
(tranquilizer) etc. The final consonants in the shortened forms are
substituded by letters characteristic of native English words.

SECONDARY WAYS OF
WORDBUILDING

SOUND
INTERCHANGE

Sound interchange is the way
of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It
is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English
and can be met in other Indo-European languages.

The causes of sound
interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut
which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of
the language development known to scientists., e.g. to strike —
stroke, to sing — song etc. It can be also the result of Ancient
Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root
vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable coming after the
root ( regressive assimilation), e.g. hot — to heat (hotian), blood —
to bleed (blodian) etc.

In many cases we have vowel
and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and
in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old
English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in
verbs in the intervocal position, e.g. bath — to bathe, life — to
live, breath — to breathe etc.

STRESS
INTERCHANGE

Stress interchange can be
mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin : nouns have the
stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g.
`accent — to ac`cent. This phenomenon is explained in the following
way: French verbs and nouns had different structure when they were
borrowed into English, verbs had one syllable more than the
corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in
English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the
second from the end) . Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs
borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and
after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in
nouns it was on the first syllable. As a result of it we have such
pairs in English as : to af`fix -`affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to
ex`port -`export, to ex`tract — `extract etc. As a result of stress
interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because
vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed
positions.

SOUND
IMITATION

It is the way of word-building
when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some
semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation

a) sounds produced by human
beings, such as : to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to
whistle etc.

b) sounds produced by animals,
birds, insects, such as : to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to
twitter etc.

c) sounds produced by nature
and objects, such as : to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble,
to ding-dong, to tinkle etc.

The corresponding nouns are
formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of
children) etc.

BLENDS

Blends are words formed from a
word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are
combined : abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the
end of the first component (apocope) and the beginning of the second
component (apheresis) . As a result we have a compound- shortened
word. One of the first blends in English was the word «smog» from
two synonyms : smoke and fog which means smoke mixed with fog. From
the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one the
end, «o» is common for both of them.

Blends formed from two
synonyms are: slanguange, to hustle, gasohol etc. Mostly blends are
formed from a word-group, such as : acromania (acronym mania),
cinemadict (cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama
comedy), detectifiction (detective fiction), faction (fact fiction)
(fiction based on real facts), informecial (information commercial) ,
Medicare ( medical care) , magalog ( magazine catalogue) slimnastics
(slimming gymnastics), sociolite (social elite), slanguist ( slang
linguist) etc.

BACK
FORMATION

It is the way of word-building
when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new
word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back
formation. At first it appeared in the languauge as a result of
misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word . Prof. Yartseva
explains this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the
language on separate words. E.g. it is typical of English to form
nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a
verb stem (speak- speaker). So when the French word «beggar» was
borrowed into English the final syllable «ar» was pronounced in the
same way as the English -er and Englishmen formed the verb «to beg»
by dropping the end of the noun. Other examples of back formation are
: to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to
collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to
compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion) to reminisce ( from
reminiscence) , to televise (from television) etc.

As we can notice in cases of
back formation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary word is
changed, verbs are formed from nouns.

SEMANTIC
CHANGES

The meaning of a word can
change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be
proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the
meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building. In such cases the
outer aspect of a word does not change.

The causes of semantic changes
can be extra-linguistic and linguistic, e.g. the change of the
lexical meaning of the noun «pen» was due to extra-linguistic
causes. Primarily « pen» comes back to the Latin word «penna» (a
feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was
transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still
later any instrument for writing was called « a pen».

On the other hand causes can
be linguistic, e.g. the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym
of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may
specialize in its meaning, e.g. the noun «tide» in Old English was
polisemantic and denoted «time», «season», «hour». When the
French words «time», «season», «hour» were borrowed into
English they ousted the word «tide» in these meanings. It was
specialized and now means «regular rise and fall of the sea caused
by attraction of the moon». The meaning of a word can also change
due to ellipsis, e.g. the word-group «a train of carriages» had the
meaning of «a row of carriages», later on «of carriages» was
dropped and the noun «train» changed its meaning, it is used now in
the function and with the meaning of the whole word-group.

Semantic changes have been
classified by different scientists. The most complete classification
was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul in his work
«Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte». It is based on the logical
principle. He distiguishes two main ways where the semantic change is
gradual ( specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious
semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways:
gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and
litote).

SPECIALIZATION

It is a gradual process when a
word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of
communication, e.g. «case» has a general meaning «circumstances in
which a person or a thing is». It is specialized in its meaning when
used in law (a law suit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a
noun), in medicine (a patient, an illness). The difference between
these meanings is revealed in the context.

The meaning of a word can
specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the
case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them
must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language, e.g. the
native word «meat» had the meaning «food», this meaning is
preserved in the compound «sweetmeats». The meaning «edible flesh»
was formed when the word «food», its absolute synonym, won in the
conflict of absolute synonyms (both words are native). The English
verb «starve» was specialized in its meaning after the Scandinavian
verb «die» was borrowed into English. «Die» became the general
verb with this meaning because in English there were the noun «death»
and the adjective «dead». «Starve» got the meaning «to die of
hunger» .

The third way of
specialization is the formation of Proper names from common nouns, it
is often used in toponimics, e.g. the City — the business part of
London, Oxford — university town in England, the Tower -originally a
fortress and palace, later -a prison, now — a museum.

The fourth way of
specialization is ellipsis. In such cases primaraly we have a
word-group of the type «attribute + noun», which is used constantly
in a definite situation. Due to it the attribute can be dropped and
the noun can get the meaning of the whole word-group, e.g. «room»
originally meant «space», this meaning is retained in the adjective
«roomy» and word combinations: «no room for», «to take room»,
«to take no room». The meaning of the word «room « was
specialized because it was often used in the combinations: «dining
room», «sleeping room» which meant «space for dining» , «space
for sleeping».

GENERALIZATION

It is a process contrary to
specializaton, in such cases the meaning of a word becomes more
general in the course of time.

The transfer from a concrete
meaning to an abstract one is most frequent, e.g. «ready» (a
derivative from the verb «ridan» — «ride») meant «prepared for a
ride», now its meaning is «prepared for anything». «Journey» was
borrowed from French with the meaning «one day trip», now it means
«a trip of any duration».

All auxiliary verbs are cases
of generalization of their lexical meaning because they developed a
grammatical meaning : «have», «be», «do», «shall» , «will»
when used as auxiliary verbs are devoid of their lexical meaning
which they have when used as notional verbs or modal verbs, e.g. cf.
«I have several books by this writer» and «I have read some books
by this author». In the first sentence the verb «have» has the
meaning «possess», in the second sentence it has no lexical
meaning, its grammatical meaning is to form Present Perfect.

METAPHOR

It is a transfer of the
meaning on the basis of comparison. Herman Paul points out that
metaphor can be based on different types of similarity:

a) similarity of shape, e.g.
head (of a cabbage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb);

b) similarity of position,
e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a procession);

c) similarity of function,
behaviour e.g. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose
duty is to see that members were present at the voting);

d) similarity of colour, e.g.
orange, hazel, chestnut etc.

In some cases we have a
complex similarity, e.g. the leg of a table has a similarity to a
human leg in its shape, position and function.

Many metaphors are based on
parts of a human body, e.g. an eye of a needle, arms and mouth of a
river, head of an army.

A special type of metaphor is
when Proper names become common nouns, e.g. philistine — a mercenary
person, vandals — destructive people, a Don Juan — a lover of many
women etc.

METONYMY

It is a transfer of the
meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of
metonymy:

a) the material of which an
object is made may become the name of the object , e.g. a glass,
boards, iron etc;

b) the name of the place may
become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the
House — members of Parliament, Fleet Street — bourgeois press, the
White House — the Administration of the USA etc;

c) names of musical
instruments may become names of musicians, e.g. the violin, the
saxophone;

d) the name of some person may
becom a common noun, e.g. «boycott» was originally the name of an
Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they
did not mix with them, «sandwich» was named after Lord Sandwich who
was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had his food
brought to him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread
not to soil his fingers.

e) names of inventors very
often become terms to denote things they invented, e.g. «watt» ,
«om», «rentgen» etc

f) some geographical names can
also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen
fabrics), Brussels (a special kind of carpets) , china (porcelain) ,
astrachan ( a sheep fur) etc.

ELEVATION

It is a transfer of the
meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.g. «knight»
originally meant «a boy», then «a young servant», then «a
military servant», then «a noble man». Now it is a title of
nobility given to outstanding people; «marshal» originally meant «a
horse man» now it is the highest military rank etc.

DEGRADATION

It is a transfer of the
meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. It is usually
connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. «villain»
originally meant «working on a villa» now it means «a scoundrel».

HYPERBOLE

It is a transfer of the
meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration,

e.g. «to hate»(doing
something), (not to see somebody) «for ages».

Hyperbole is often used to
form phraseological units, e.g. «to make a mountain out of a
molehill», «to split hairs» etc.

LITOTE

It is a transfer of the
meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the negative or
vica versa, e.g. not bad, no coward etc.

PHRASEOLOGY

The vocabulary of a language
is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units.
Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the
process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units.
They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words
phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a
sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call
such units «idioms». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith
«Words and Idioms», V.Collins «A Book of English Idioms» etc. In
these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics
(idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these
dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic
groups.

Phraseological units can be
classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the
degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their
structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.

WAYS OF FORMING
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

A.V. Koonin classified
phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He pointed
out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.

Primary ways of forming
phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of
a free word-group :

a) Most
productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units
by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups,
e.g. in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases:
«launching pad» in its terminological meaning is «стартовая
площадка» , in its transferred meaning — «отправной
пункт», «to link up» — «cтыковаться, стыковать
космические корабли» in its tranformed meaning it
means -«знакомиться»;

b) a large group of
phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transforming
their meaning, e.g. «granny farm» — «пансионат для
престарелых», «Troyan horse» — «компьюторная
программа, преднамеренно составленная
для повреждения компьютера»;

c) phraseological units can be
formed by means of alliteration , e.g. «a sad sack» — «несчастный
случай», «culture vulture» — «человек,
интересующийся искусством», «fudge and
nudge» — «уклончивость».

d) they can
be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic
for forming interjections, e.g. «My aunt!», « Hear, hear !» etc

e) they can be formed by means
of distorting a word group, e.g. «odds and ends» was formed from
«odd ends»,

f) they can be formed by using
archaisms, e.g. «in brown study» means «in gloomy meditation»
where both components preserve their archaic meanings,

g) they can
be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g.
«that cock won’t fight» can be used as a free word-group when it
is used in sports (cock fighting ), it becomes a phraseological unit
when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically,

h) they can be formed when we
use some unreal image, e.g. «to have butterflies in the stomach» —
«испытывать волнение», «to have green fingers»
— »преуспевать как садовод-любитель»
etc.

i) they can be formed by using
expressions of writers or polititions in everyday life, e.g.
«corridors of power» (Snow), «American dream» (Alby) «locust
years» (Churchil) , «the winds of change» (Mc Millan).

Secondary
ways of forming phraseological units are those when a phraseological
unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit; they are:

a) conversion, e.g. «to vote
with one’s feet» was converted into «vote with one’s f eet»;

b) changing the grammar form,
e.g. «Make hay while the sun shines» is transferred into a verbal
phrase — «to make hay while the sun shines»;

c) analogy, e.g. «Curiosity
killed the cat» was transferred into «Care killed the cat»;

d) contrast, e.g. «cold
surgery» — «a planned before operation» was formed by contrasting
it with «acute surgery», «thin cat» — «a poor person» was
formed by contrasting it with «fat cat»;

e)
shortening of proverbs or sayings e.g. from the proverb «You can’t
make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear» by means of clipping the
middle of it the phraseological unit «to make a sow’s ear» was
formed with the meaning «ошибаться».

f)
borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as
translation loans, e.g. « living space» (German), « to take the
bull by the horns» ( Latin) or by means of phonetic borrowings
«meche blanche» (French), «corpse d’elite» (French), «sotto
voce» (Italian) etc.

Phonetic borrowings among
phraseological units refer to the bookish style and are not used very
often.

SEMANTIC
CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

Phraseological units can be
classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning.
This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for
Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of
phraseological units:

a) fusions where the degree of
motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from
the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot
be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. on Shank’s
mare — (on foot), at sixes and sevens — (in a mess) etc;

b) unities where the meaning
of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but
it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the
first fiddle ( to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced
sailor) etc;

c) collocations where words
are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are
different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry — (self-service
shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.

STRUCTURAL
CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked
out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them
with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with
derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He
points out two-top units which he compares with compound words
because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points
out three structural types;

a) units of the type «to give
up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop
out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.;

b) units of the type «to be
tired» . Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their
structure but they have different prepositons with them, while in the
Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g.
to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc. There
are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type
«to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc. The
difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be used
as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal
component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units
the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the
semantic centre;

c) prepositional- nominal
phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable
words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs , that is why they have no
grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on
the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of,
on the stroke of, in time, on the point of etc. In the course of time
such units can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead etc.

Among two-top units A.I.
Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such
as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck
and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be
partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms)
sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other
cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many
cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed
of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological
units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under
the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the
semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall
in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic
centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly
idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s
feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.

Very close to such units are
word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These
units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special
syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.

c) phraseological repetitions,
such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc.
Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and
forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and
ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means
of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives
and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly
idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter
(perfectly).

Phraseological units the same
as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound
words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock,
stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own
sweet will.

SYNTACTICAL
CLASSIFICATION

OF PHRASEOLOGICAL
UNITS

Phraseological units can be
clasified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by
I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms
denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train,
latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,

b) verb phraseologisms
denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to
get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to
make headlines,

c) adjective phraseologisms
denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead ,

d) adverb phraseological
units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog
with two tails,

e) preposition phraseological
units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,

f) interjection phraseological
units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s
classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings
and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him
tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too
many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule
non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».

BORROWINGS

Borrowing words from other
languages is characteristic of English throughout its history More
than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they
are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish).
Borrowed words are different from native ones by their phonetic
structure, by their morphological structure and also by their
grammatical forms. It is also characterisitic of borrowings to be
non-motivated semantically.

English history is very rich
in different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it
is very rich in borrowings. The Roman invasion, the adoption of
Cristianity, Scandinavian and Norman conquests of the British Isles,
the development of British colonialism and trade and cultural
relations served to increase immensely the English vocabulary. The
majority of these borrowings are fully assimilated in English in
their pronunciation, grammar, spelling and can be hardly
distinguished from native words.

English continues to take in
foreign words , but now the quantity of borrowings is not so abundunt
as it was before. All the more so, English now has become a «giving»
language, it has become Lingva franca of the twentieth century.

Borrowings can be classified
according to different criteria:

a) according to the aspect
which is borrowed,

b) according to the degree of
assimilation,

c) according to the language
from which the word was borrowed.

(In this classification only
the main languages from which words were borrowed into English are
described, such as Latin, French, Italian. Spanish, German and
Russian.)

CLASSIFICATION OF
BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT

There are the following
groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings,
morphemic borrowings.

Phonetic borrowings are most
characteristic in all languages, they are called loan words proper.
Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning.
Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is
substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In
some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can
also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced
by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the
word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also
changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are
phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik
are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are
phonetic borrowings from Italian etc.

Translation loans are
word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme ) translations of some
foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed
from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units,
«to take the bull by the horns» (Latin), «fair sex» ( French),
«living space» (German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in
English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday
(solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of
Indians, such as: «pipe of peace», «pale-faced», from German
«masterpiece», «homesickness», «superman».

Semantic
borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in
the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative
languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g. there
are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the
meaning «to live» for the word «to dwell’ which in Old English
had the meaning «to wander». Or else the meaning «дар» ,
«подарок» for the word «gift» which in Old English had the
meaning «выкуп за жену».

Semantic borrowing can appear
when an English word was borrowed into some other language, developed
there a new meaning and this new meaning was borrowed back into
English, e.g. «brigade» was borrowed into Russian and formed the
meaning «a working collective«,»бригада». This meaning was
borrowed back into English as a Russian borrowing. The same is true
of the English word «pioneer».

Morphemic
borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when
many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into
another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes
familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we can
find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system,
that is why there are a lot of words — hybrids in English where
different morphemes have different origin, e.g. «goddess»,
«beautiful» etc.

Abbreviation as one of the two types of shortening in modern english

Contents

abbreviation english slang phonetic

Introduction

I. The general notions of abbreviation in english

1.1 The history of abbreviations

1.2 Abbreviations is the major way of shortening

II. The appearance of new abbreviation

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

theme of my work sounds as following: «Abbreviation as the main type of shorteting in Modern English». This work can be characterized by the following. The actuality of this work caused by several important points. The abbreviation is one of the main trends in development of Modern English, especially in its colloquial layer, which, in its turn at high degree is supported by development of modern informational technologies and simplification of alive speech. So the significance of my work can be proved by the following reasons:) Abbreviation is one of the most developing branches among another types of shortening lexicology nowadays.) Abbreviation reflects the general trend of simplification of a language. c) Abbreviation is closely connected with the development of modern informational technologies.based upon the actuality of the theme it is formulated the general goals of course paper.

to study, analyze, and sum up the general notions of abbreviation in English;

to learn the history of abbreviations;

to study abbreviations as the major way of shortening;

to demonstrate the significance of the problem for those who want to brush up their English.we say about the new information used within my work I may note that the work studies the problem from the modern positions and analyzes the modern trends appeared in this subject for the last ten years. In particular, the shorten language of computer chats was taken into consideration.practical significance of the work can be concluded in the following items:) The work could serve as a good source of learning English by young teachers at schools and colleges.) The lexicologists could find a lot of interesting information for themselves. c) those who would like to communicate with the English-speaking people through the Internet will find a shortened language of chats in my work.we say about the methods of scientific approaches used in our work we can mention that the method of typological analysis was used.general structure of the course paper looks as follows: the work is composed onto three major parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. The introductory part tells about the general content of the work. The second part bears the two points in itself. The first point tells about the history of abbreviations. The second item analyses abbreviations as the major way of shortening. The third part tells about new abbreviations. The conclusion of the qualification work sums up the ideas discussed in the main part and shows the ways of implying of the course paper.

I. The general notions of abbreviation in english

abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr., abbrv. or abbrev. In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term «abbreviation» in loose parlance.An abbreviation is a shortening by any method; a contraction is a reduction of size by the drawing together of the parts. A contraction of a word is made by omitting certain letters or syllables and bringing together the first and last letters or elements; an abbreviation may be made either by omitting certain portions from the interior or by cutting off a part; a contraction is an abbreviation, but an abbreviation is not necessarily a contraction. However, normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations (e.g. by the Council of Science Editors). Abbreviations can also be used to give a different context to the world itself, such as (PIN Number, wherein if the abbreviation were removed the context would be invalid).

1.1 The history of abbreviations

has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was still normal, but can default. An increase in literacy has, historically, sometimes spawned a trend toward abbreviation. The standardization of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master and ‹exacɔbate› for exacerbate. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy time. An example from the Oxford University Register, 1503: Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔ to quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ. In the 1830s in the United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a fad. For example, during the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very trendy. The use of abbreviation for the names of «Father of modern etymology» J. R. R. Tolkien and his friend C. S. Lewis, and other members of the Oxford literary group known as the Inklings, are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence. After World War II, the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of secret agents called the «Special Operations, Executive» — «S.O.,E» — which is not found in histories written after about 1960. But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In French, the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent: «M.» is the abbreviation for «monsieur» while «Mme» is that for «madame». Like many other cross-channel linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously.[citation needed] Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to use periods in two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely.Minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film ribbons, since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.Widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the Internet during the 1990s allowed for a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant- and text messaging. SMS for instance supports message lengths of 160 characters at most (using the GSM 03.38 character set). This brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese, with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated. More recently Twitter, a popular social network service, began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits.[1]interesting history of origin ofcertain abbreviations.Here are some examples:

£ for lb(pound)

XmasChristians believe that the abbreviation is intended to «take the Christ out Christmas» or because of the letter’s similarity to a cross. Be that as it may, the real origin of ‘Xmas’ lies within the Greek language. The Greek word for ‘Christ’ begins with the Greek letter ‘chi,’ which is represented by a symbol similar to the letter ‘X’ in the modern Roman alphabet. Therefore, ‘Xmas’ is a completely allowable abbreviation that is almost as old as the Christian religion itself! Similarly a Christian could be referred to as an «Xian»..I.P.(Very important person)frequently used contraction was created during World War II by a British officer in charge of organizing flights for important military leaders. In order to conceal the names from enemy spies, each of these were referred to as a «V.I.P.» in the flight plan.(A married woman), Mrs. was a shortened version of mistress, a word that used to mean «wife» but has since acquired a very different meaning. Strictly speaking, because the word it once abbreviated has changed its meaning, Mrs. is no longer an abbreviation — unlike Mr., its male counterpart, which can be spelled out as Mister.(A strikeout in baseball)the 1860s when a batter struck out, it was proper to say that he «struck.» It was during this era that a newspaperman named Henry Chadwick created symbols for use with his new invention — the box score. He gave each play a letter: S for sacrifice, E for error, and so on. Since S was already taken, he used to last letter of «struck» instead of the first to abbreviate it: K.(A drug prescription), there is no x in Rx. In Medieval Latin, the first word in medicinal prescription directing one to take a specific quantity of a concoction was recipe, meaning «take» or «receive.» This was later symbolized as an R with a slash across its leg. The spelling Rx is an attempt to represent this symbol in English letters.. D. Q.(Pretty damn quick.)abbreviation for ‘pretty damn quick’ or ‘pretty damned quick’ is now so commonplace that it is often written without the full stops, i.e. ‘PDQ’. Many abbreviations have origins that are difficult to trace. With PDQ life is a little easier. The term was first used in The Mighty Dollar, a play by Benjamin E. Woolf, first performed in 1875 at New York’s Park Theatre. The play’s money-hungry character Judge Bardwell Stote habitually used abbreviations like T.T.T — a ‘tip-top time’ and G.I.C. — ‘goose is cooked’.»That’s right, you’d better step P.D.Q., pretty damn quick.» ‘Pretty damned quick’ was already in use by 1875, for example, this piece from the Memoirs of Charles Mathews, Comedian, 1839: «If he showed me any of it, I’d make him clear out pretty damned quick.»P.D.Q. lasted and the numerous other abbreviations from Woolf’s work didn’t is open to debate..O.(Body odor)1933 the Lifebuoy Health Soap Company ran a series of radio advertisements containing their new slogan: «Lifebuoy stops B- O-.» A heavy two-note foghorn warning was synchronized with the «B.O.,» giving the phrase a negative spin it has retained ever since.Day(June 6, 1944, the day Allied forces invaded France during WWII)D in D-Day does not stand for «designated» or «defeat,» as many believe, but simply for «day.» D-day actually means «day day.» The redundancy comes from the common practice in army correspondence of referring to a top secret time as H-hour or D-day.

(Marking on bottles in cartoons to indicate that they contain alcohol) During the 19th century, breweries in Britain marked their bottles X, XX, or XXX as a sign of alcohol content. The number of Xs corresponded to the potency of the drink.

«OK» is an English expression, pronounced identically, and it appears in almost all the areas and in all the languages of the world, although it is difficult to say that it is actually a word or how it is originated. Whether you are in China, India, Great Britain or Italy, it is enough to say «OK» and the meaning of affirmative expressions will be clear to everyone.Until recently, both in English-speaking countries and the rest of the world, the famous acronym today can hear from the mouth of the Heads of State and Government, and also in the pages of literary history, awarded with the Nobel Prize. Incredible destiny for the word that have emerged from the wrong «spelling». In fact, the acronym first appeared in an article published back in 1839. in the list of the Boston Morning Post in which he referred to the person who says «OK», short for «all correct». Mistake was not at all unusual for that time when there were few people that knew how to read and write. However, there are other theories about the origin of the acronym «OK» and they do not all come from America. Specifically, the language of Aristotle, «Ola Kala» means «all is well», and even the Greeks had used to shorten the term of «OK». In Germany, «Ohne Korrektur», translated «without corrections», also shortened the same way. Swedes, however, use the term «Oc aye» (oh yes), which is pronounced just like «okay», and is not necessary to abbreviate it. The British public broadcaster BBC has recently devoted an entire appendix famous acronym. «This is a very unusual word that sounds like an abbreviation, an acronym. But it would make its strange appearance could be the reason for her huge popularity, «. However, the expression «OK» can now be heard and read almost anywhere. For U.S. President Barack Obama, he has become almost a byword, and British purists began to use it, like David Cameron. Those who have read «The Road» Cormac McCarthy could notice a series of dialogues between father and son who are completing with «OK».[2]

1.2 Abbreviations is the major way of shortening

fashionable use of abbreviation — a kind of society slang — comes and goes in waves, though it is never totally absent. In the present century, however, it has been eclipsed by the emergence of abbreviations in science, technology, and other special fields, such as cricket, baseball, drug trafficking, the armed forces, and the media. The reasons for using abbreviated forms are obvious enough. One is the desire for linguistic economy — the same motivation which makes us want to criticize someone who uses two words where one will do. Succinctness and precision are highly valued, and abbreviations can contribute greatly to a concise style. They also help to convey a sense of social identity: to use an abbreviated form is to be ‘in die know’ — part of the social group to which the abbreviation belongs. Computer buffs the world over will be recognized by their fluent talk of ROM and RAM, of DOS and WYSIWYG. You are no buff if you are unable to use such forms, or need to look them up (respectively, ‘read-only memory’, ‘random-access memory’, ‘disk operating system’, and ‘what you see is what you get’). It would only irritate computer-literate colleagues and waste time or space (and thus money) if a computer-literate person pedantically expanded every abbreviated form. And the same applies to those abbreviations which have entered everyday speech. It would be strange indeed to hear someone routinely expanding BBC(the British Broadcasting Corporation), NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), NASA(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), AIDS(acquired immune deficiency syndrome), and all die other common abbreviations of contemporary English.[3]In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more i information in the shortest possible time.are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing «fanaticus» is shortened to «fan» on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc.There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing.Graphical abbreviations are restricted in use to written speech, occurring only in various kinds of texts, articles, books, advertisements, letters, etc. In reading, many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that they represent, e.g. Dr. = doctor, Mr.=mister, Oct.= October, etc.; the abbreviations of Latin and French words and phrases are usually read as their English equivalents. It follows that graphical abbreviations cannot be considered new lexical vocabulary units.It is only natural that in the course of language development some graphical abbreviations should gradually penetrate into the sphere of oral intercourse and, as a result, turn into self-contained lexical units used both in oral and written speech. That is the case, for instance, with a.m. [‘ei’em] — in the morning, before noon; p.m. [‘pi:’em] — in the afternoon; S.O.S. [‘es ou es] (=Save Our Souls) — urgent call for help, etc. 1. Transformations of word-groups into words involve different types of lexical shortening: ellipsis or substantivisation, initial letter or syllable abbreviations (also referred to as acronyms), blendings, etc.Substantivisation consists in dropping of the final nominal member of a frequently used attributive word-group. When such a member of the word-group is dropped as, for example, was the case with a documentary film the remaining adjective takes on the meaning and all the syntactic functions of the noun and thus develops into a new word changing its class membership and becoming homonymous to the existing adjective. It may be illustrated by a number of nouns that appeared in this way, e.g. an incendiary goes back to an incendiary bomb, the finals to the final examinations, an editorial to an editorial article, etc. Other more recent creations are an orbital (Br. a highway going around the suburbs of a city), a verbal (a verbal confession introduced as evidence at a trial), a topless which goes to three different word-groups and accordingly has three meanings: 1) a topless dress, bathing suit, etc., 2) a waitress, dancer, etc. wearing topless garments, 3) a bar, night-club featuring topless waitresses or performers.Substantivisation is often accompanied by productive suffixation as in, e.g., a one-winger from one-wing plane, a two-decker from two-deck bus or ship; it may be accompanied by clipping and productive suffixation, e.g. flickers (coll.) from flicking pictures, a smoker from smoking carriage, etc. Вlendings are the result of conscious creation of words by merging irregular fragments of several words which are aptly called «splinters.» 1 Splinters assume different shapes — they may be severed from the source word at a morpheme boundary as in transceiver (=transmitter and receiver), transistor (= transfer and resistor) or at a syllable boundary like cute (from execute) in electrocute, medicare (from medical care), polutician (from pollute and politician) or boundaries of both kinds may be disregarded as in brunch (from breakfast and lunch), smog (from smoke and fog), ballute (from baloon and parachute), etc. Many blends show some degree of overlapping of vowels, consonants and syllables or echo the word or word fragment it replaces. This device is often used to attain punning effect, as in foolosopher echoing philosopher; icecapade (= spectacular shows on ice) echoing escapade; baloonatic (= baloon and lunatic).Blends are coined not infrequently in scientific and technical language as a means of naming new things, as trade names in advertisements. Since blends break the rules of morphology they result in original combinations which catch quickly. Most of the blends have a colloquial flavour.

2. Clipping refers to the creation of new words by shortening a word of two or more syllables (usually nouns and adjectives) without changing its class membership. Clipped words, though they often exist together with the longer original source word function as independent lexical units with a certain phonetic shape and lexical meaning of their own. The lexical meanings of the clipped word and its source do not as a rule coincide, for instance, doc refers only to one who practices medicine, whereas doctor denotes also the higher degree given by a university and a person who has received it, e.g. Doctor of Law, Doctor of Philosophy. Clipped words always differ from the non-clipped words in the emotive charge and stylistic reference. Clippings indicate an attitude of familiarity on the part of the user either towards the object denoted or towards the audience, thus clipped words are characteristic of colloquial speech. In the course of time, though, many clipped words find their way into the literary language losing some of their colloquial colouring. Clippings show various degrees of semantic dissociation from their full forms. Some are no longer felt to be clippings, e.g. pants (cf. pantaloons), bus (cf. omnibus), bike (cf. bicycle), etc. Some of them retain rather close semantic ties with the original word. This gives ground to doubt whether the clipped words should be considered separate words. Some linguists hold the view that in case semantic dissociation is slight and the major difference lies in the emotive charge and stylistic application the two units should be regarded as word-variants (e.g. exam and examination, lab and laboratory, etc.).Clipping often accompanies other ways of shortening such as substantivisation, e.g. perm (from permanent wave), op (from optical art), pop (from popular music, art, singer, etc.), etc.As independent vocabulary units clippings serve as derivational bases for suffixal derivations collocating with highly productive neutral and stylistically non-neutral suffixes -ie, -er, e.g. nightie (cf. nightdress), panties, hanky (cf. handkerchief). Cases of conversion are not infrequent, e.g. to taxi, to perm, etc.There do not seem to be any clear rules by means of which we might predict where a word will be cut though there are several types into which clippings are traditionally classified according to the part of the word that is clipped:

)Words that have been shortened at the end-the so-called apocope, e.g. ad (from advertisement), lab (from laboratory), mike (from microphone), etc. Words that have been shortened at the beginning-the so-called aphaeresis, e.g. car (from motor-car), phone (from telephone), copter (from helicopter), etc 2)Words in which some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the middle-the so-called syncope, e.g. maths (from mathematics), pants (from pantaloons), specs (from spectacles), etc. 3)Words that have been clipped both at the beginning and at the end, e.g. flu (from influenza), tec (from detective), fridge (from refrigerator), etc.It must be stressed that acronyms and clipping are the main ways of word-creation most active in present-day English. The peculiarity of both types of words is that they are structurally simple, semantically non-motivated and give rise to new root-morphemes.[4] The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form,e.g. for example (Latin exampli gratia), a.m. — in the morning (ante meridiem), No -number (numero), p.a. — a year (per annum), d — penny (dinarius), lb — pound (libra), i. e. — that is (id est) etc. Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced «in the afternoon» (post meridiem) and «after death» (post mortem).There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them:

a)days of the week, e.g. Mon — Monday, Tue — Tuesday etc.

b)names of months, e.g. Apr — April, Aug — August etc.)names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks — Yorkshire, Berks -Berkshire etc.)names of states in USA, e.g. Ala — Alabama, Alas — Alaska etc.)names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. etc.)military ranks, e.g. capt. -captain, col. — colonel, sgt — sergeant etc.)scientific degrees, e.g. B.A. — Bachelor of Arts, D.M. — Doctor of Medicine . ( Sometimes in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, e.g., M.B. — Medicinae Baccalauras).)units of time, length, weight, e.g. f. / ft -foot/feet, sec. — second, in. -inch, mg. -milligram etc.[5]The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. «m» can be read as: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, «l.p.» can be read as long-playing, low pressure.Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. — joint venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form.

In some cases the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without using special dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. Very often they are expressed in the way they are pronounced in the language of their origin, e.g. ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) is given in Russian as АНЗУС, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) was for a long time used in Russian as COJIT, now a translation variant is used (ОСВ -Договор об ограничении стратегических вооружений). This type of initialisms borrowed into other languages is preferable, e.g. UFO -НЛО, СП-JVetc.There are three types of initialisms in English:) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etcb) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computor-based Laboratory for Automated School System).Some scientists unite groups b) and c) into one group which they call acronyms. Some initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by different ways of word-building:a) affixation, e.g. AWALism, ex-rafer, ex- POW, to waafize, AIDSophobia etc.) conversion, e.g. to raff, to fly IFR (Instalment Flight Rules),) composition, e.g. STOLport, USAFman etc.) there are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V -day etc. in some cases the first component is a complete word and the second component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three -Ds (Three dimensions).[6]Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form the full form of the word. In such cases as «fantasy» and «fancy», «fence» and «defence» we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as «laboratory» and «lab» we have different styles.Abbreviation does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof is a noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbreviated nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy, dilly, mizzy etc.Here we can mention a group of words ending in «o», such as disco (dicotheque), expo (exposition), intro (introduction) and many others. On the analogy with these words there developed in Modern English a number of words where «o» is added as a kind of a suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination) — небольшой эстрадный ансамбль, Afro (African) -прическа под африканца etc. In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have apheresis e.g. chute (parachute), varsity (university), copter (helicopter), thuse (enthuse) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine (fan magazine) maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope. Sometimes we have a combination of apocope with apheresis,when the beginning and the end of the word are clipped, e.g. tec (detective), van (avanguard).Sometimes shortening influences the spelling of the word, e.g. «c» can be substituted by «k» before «e» to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following cases: fax( facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer) etc. The final consonants in the shortened forms are substituded by letters characteristic of native English words.[7]This comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English.An abbreviation is a short way of writing a word or a phrase that could also be written out in full. So, for example, you might write Dr Kinsey instead of Doctor Kinsey. Here Dr is an abbreviation for the word Doctor. Abbreviations must be clearly distinguished from contractions. The key difference is that an abbreviation does not normally have a distinctive pronunciation of its own. So, for example, the abbreviation Dr is pronounced just like Doctor, the abbreviation oz is pronounced just like ounce(s) and the abbreviation e.g. is pronounced just like for example. (True, there are a few people who actually say «ee-jee» for the last one, but this practice is decidedly unusual.) A contraction, in contrast, does have its own distinctive pronunciation: for example, the contraction can’t is pronounced differently from cannot, and the contraction she’s is pronounced differently from she is or she has. Abbreviations are very rarely used in formal writing. Almost the only ones which are frequently used are the abbreviations for certain common titles, when these are used with someone’s name: Mr Willis, Dr Livingstone, Mrs Thatcher, Ms Harmon, St Joan. (Note that the two items Mrs and Ms are conventionally treated as abbreviations, even though they can be written in no other way.) When writing about a French or Spanish person, you may use the abbreviations for the French and Spanish equivalents of the English titles: M. Mitterrand, Sr. González. (These are the usual French and Spanish abbreviations for Monsieur and Señor, equivalent to English Mister.) Observe that each of these abbreviations begins with a capital letter. Other titles are sometimes abbreviated in the same way: Prof. Chomsky, Sgt. Yorke, Mgr. Lindemann. However, it is usually much better to write these titles out in full when you are using them in a sentence: Professor Chomsky, Sergeant Yorke, Monsignor Lindemann. The abbreviated forms are best confined to places like footnotes and captions of pictures. Note carefully the use of full stops in these abbreviations. British usage favours omitting the full stop in abbreviations which include the first and last letters of a single word, such as Mr, Mrs, Ms, Dr and St; American usage prefers (A) Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. and St., with full stops. Most other abbreviated titles, however, require a full stop, as shown above. A person’s initials are a kind of abbreviation, and these are usually followed by full stops: John D. Rockefeller, C. Aubrey Smith, O. J. Simpson. Increasingly, however, there is a tendency to write such initials without full stops: John D Rockefeller, C Aubrey Smith, O J Simpson. And note the rare special case illustrated by Harry S Truman: the S in this name never takes a full stop, because it’s not an abbreviation for anything; President Truman’s parents actually gave him the middle name S. Two other common abbreviations are a.m. (`before noon’) and p.m. (`after noon’): 10.00 a.m., six p.m. These are always acceptable. Note that these are not capitalized in British usage (though American usage prefers (A) 10.00 am and six pm, with small capitals and no full stops). Also usual are the abbreviations b.c. and a.d., usually written in small capitals, for marking dates as before or after the birth of Christ: According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 b.c. The emperor Vespasian died in a.d. 79. or The emperor Vespasian died in 79 a.d. It is traditional, and recommended, to write a.d. before the date, but nowadays it is often written after. Non-Christians who do not use the Christian calendar may prefer to use b.c.e. (`before the common era’) and c.e. (`of the common era’) instead. This is always acceptable: According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 b.c.e The emperor Vespasian died in 79 c.e. All four of these abbreviations are commonly written in small capitals, and you should follow this practice if you can; if you can’t produce small capitals, use full-sized capitals instead. All four of them are also now very frequently written without full stops: 753 bc, ad 79, 753 bce, 79 ce. This reflects the increasing tendency to omit the full stops in abbreviations. Note also that, when an abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence, only one full stop is written. You should never write two full stops in a row. The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group. They are found not only among formal words but also among colloquialisms and slang. [8]Many large and well-known organizations and companies have very long names which are commonly abbreviated to a set of initials written in capital letters, usually with no full stops. Here are a few familiar examples: BBC -British Broadcasting Corporation ICI -Imperial Chemical Industries FBI -Federal Bureau of Investigation RSPCA -Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals NATO -North Atlantic Treaty Organization MIT -Massachusetts Institute of Technology TUC -Trades Union Congress These and some others are so famous that you can safely use the abbreviated forms without explanation. But don’t overdo it , not every reader will recognize IRO as the International Refugee Organization, or IOOF as the Independent Order of Odd Fellows (an American social and charitable organization). And, if you’re writing for a non-British readership, you’d better not use the abbreviated forms of specifically British institutions, such as the TUC, without explaining them. If you are in doubt, explain the abbreviation the first time you use it. (Note that a few of these were formerly written with full stops, such as R.S.P.C.A., but this tiresome and unnecessary practice is now obsolete). A few other abbreviations are so well known that you can use them safely in your writing. Every reader will understand what you mean by GCSE examinations (GCSE = General Certificate of Secondary Education), or by DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), or by IQ (intelligence quotient), or by FM radio (FM = frequency modulation). Indeed, in some of these cases, the abbreviated form of the name is far more familiar than the full name. Otherwise, however, you should try to avoid the use of abbreviations in your formal writing. The frequent use of unnecessary abbreviations will make your text irritating and hard to read. So, you should write four ounces (not 4 oz.), 80 miles per hour (not 80 mph), the Church of England (not the C of E), the seventeenth century (not C17 or the 17th cent.) and the second volume (not the 2nd vol.) It is far more important to make your writing easy to read than to save a few seconds in writing it. There is one exception to this policy. In scientific writing, the names of units are always abbreviated and always written without full stops or a plural s. If you are doing scientific writing, then, you should conform by writing 5 kg (not 5 kilogrammes, and certainly not 5 kg. or 5 kgs.), 800 Hz (not 800 Hertz) and 17.3 cm3 (not 17.3 cubic centimetres). There are a number of Latin abbreviations which are sometimes used in English texts. Here are the commonest ones with their English equivalents: e.g. for example cf. compare i.e. in other words v. consultviz. namely etc. and so forth sc. which means et al. and other people ca. Approximately[9]The rule about using these Latin abbreviations is very simple: don’t use them. Their use is only appropriate in special circumstances in which brevity is at a premium, such as in footnotes. It is very poor style to spatter your page with these things, and it could be disastrous to use them without being quite sure what they mean. If you do use one, make sure you punctuate it correctly. Here is an example. The recommended form is this: Several British universities were founded in the Victorian era; for example, the University of Manchester was established in 1851. The following version is not wrong, but it is poor style:British universities were founded in the Victorian era; e.g., the University of Manchester was established in 1851.But this next version is disastrously wrong, because the punctuation has been omitted:British universities were founded in the Victorian era e.g. the University of Manchester was established in 1851. Using a Latin abbreviation does not relieve you of the obligation of punctuating your sentence. Again, if you avoid Latin abbreviations, you won’t get into this sort of trouble. The abbreviation ca. `approximately’ is properly used only in citing a date which is not known exactly, and then usually only if the date is given in parentheses.famous Basque cemetery of Argiñeta in Elorrio (ca. ad 883) shows tombs with sun-discs but no crosses. Roger Bacon (ca. 1214- 1294) was known as «the Admirable Doctor». Here the use of ca. shows that the date of the cemetery and the date of Bacon’s birth are not known exactly. If neither birth date nor death date is known for sure, then each is preceded by ca. Outside of parentheses, you should usually avoid the use of ca. and prefer an English word like about or approximately: The city of Bilbao was founded in about 1210.Do not write «…in ca. 1210».abbreviation etc. calls for special comment. It should never be used in careful writing: it is vague and sloppy and, when applied to people, rather offensive. Do not write something like this:Africa was explored by Livingstone, Stanley, Brazza, etc., rewrite the sentence in a more explicit way:Africa was explored by Livingstone, Stanley and Brazza, among others. orCentral Africa was explored by several Europeans, including Livingstone, Stanley and Brazza.you do find yourself using etc., for heaven’s sake spell it and punctuate it correctly. This is an abbreviation for the Latin phrase et cetera `and other things’, and it is pronounced ET SETRA, and not EK SETRA. Do not write ghastly things like ect. or e.t.c. Such monstrosities make your writing look hopelessly illiterate. Again, if you avoid Latin abbreviations, you won’t fall into such traps. [10], there are two further (and highly objectionable) Latin abbreviations ibid. and op. cit.that it is usual to write Latin abbreviations in italics, but this is not strictly essential, and many people don’t bother. has recently been a fashion in some circles for writing Latin abbreviations without full stops, and you may come across things like ie and eg in your reading. I consider this a ghastly practice, and I urge you strongly not to imitate it. (Note, however, that et al. has only one full stop, since et `and’ is a complete word in Latin.) One final point: very many people who should know better use the Latin abbreviation cf., which properly means `compare’, merely to refer to published work. It is now very common to see something like this: Australian language Dyirbal has a remarkable gender system; cf. Dixon (1972).is quite wrong, since the writer is not inviting the reader to compare Dixon’s work with anything, but only to consult that work for more information. Hence the correct form is this:Australian language Dyirbal has a remarkable gender system; see Dixon (1972).widespread blunder is a signal reminder of the danger of using Latin abbreviations when you don’t know what they mean. Far too many writers fall into this trap, and write i.e. when they mean e.g., or something equally awful. If you must use a Latin abbreviation, make sure you’re using the right one. In most circumstances, though, you are best advised to avoid these abbreviations: almost every one of them has a simple English equivalent which should usually be preferred., some abbreviations may come to resemble blends by combining larger sets of initial and non-initial letters. However, such forms still differ crucially from proper blends in that they do neither obey the three pertinent prosodic constraints, nor do they necessarily conform to the semantic property of blends described above.spelling and pronunciation of abbreviations may seem trivial, but nevertheless offers interesting perspectives on the formal properties of these words. Consider the following abbreviations with regard to their spelling and pronunciation differences:as soon as possibleCooperative for Assistance and Relief EverywhereCentral Intelligence Agency.g.-for exampleet ceteraFederal Bureau of InvestigationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organizationvalue added taxradio detecting and rangingStrategic Arms Reduction TalksUnited States of Americaorthographic and phonetic properties of the abbreviations are indicated in the following table. For some abbreviations there is more than one possibility:spellingpronunciationin capitalsas individual lettersin capitalsas individual lettersin capitalsas individual lettersin capitalsas individual lettersin capitalsas a regular wordin capitalsas a regular wordin capitalsas a regular wordin lower case letters with dotsas individual letters.g. in lower case letters with dotsas individual letters. in lower case letters with dotsas individual letters.s.a.p. in lower case letters with dotsthe abbreviated words are.g. in lower case letters with dotsthe abbreviated words are. in lower case letters with dotsthe abbreviated words arethe cases where the abbreviation can trigger the regular pronunciation of the abbreviated words(a.s.a.p., e.g., etc.) and ignoring the use or non-use of dots, abbreviations can be grouped according to two orthographic and phonological properties. They can be either spelled in capital or in lower case letters, and they can be either pronounced by naming each individual letters (so-called initialisms, as in USA or by applying regular reading rules, as in NATO ). In the latter case the abbreviation is called acronym. The following table systematizes this observation:examplecapitalsas initialism CIA-Centralcapitalsas acronym NATO-Northlower case lettersas initialism e.g.lower case lettersas acronym radar-radiospelling of acronyms may differ with regard to use of capital letters. Usually capital letters are used, which can be interpreted as a formal device that clearly links the acronyms to its base word. Some words that historically originated as acronyms are nowadays no longer spelt with capital letters, and for the majority of speakers these forms are no longer related to the words they originally abbreviated(e.g. radar),being pronounced like regular words, must conform to the phonological patterns of English, which can create problems in applying regular reading rules if the reading out would result in illegal phonological words. For example, an abbreviation like BBC is an unlikely candidate for an acronym, because [bbk] or [bbs] are feature illegal word-internal combination of sounds in English. Sometimes, however, speakers make abbreviations pronounceable, i.e. create acronyms. This seems to be especially popular in the naming of linguistics conference:New Way of Analyzing Variation in EnglishSecond Language Research Forumabbreviations are formed in such a way to yield not only pronouncable words (i.e. acronyms), but also words that are homophonous to existing words. This is often done for marketing or publicity reasons, especially in those cases where homonymous word carries a meaning that is intended to be associated with the referent of the acronym. Consider the following examples:Cooperative for Assistance and Relief EverywhereStrategic Arms Reduction Talksword START in particular is interesting because it was coined not only as a word to refer to an envisioned disarmament treaty between the U.S. And Soviet Union, but it was presumably also coined to evoke the idea that the American side had the intention to make a new, serious effort in disarmament talks with the Soviet Union at a time when many people doubted the willingness of the U.S. Government to seriously want disarmament. Incidentally, the START program replaced an earlier, unsuccessful disarmament effort named SALT(Strategic Arms Limitation Talks). Such data show that in political discourse, the participants consider it important how to name a phenomenon in a particular way in order to win a political argument. The assumption underlying such a strategy is that the name used for a given phenomenon will influence the language user’s concept of and attitude towards that phenomenon.[11]

II. The appearance of new abbreviation

modern computer publications, both foreign and domestic, unwittingly encounters a lot of cuts, appropriate technologies, standards and protocols. Their number is increasing day by day, and all the new reductions fall into this category are often used and therefore do not require descriptions. Here are some examples of new abbreviation:the materials required for a repair or renovation that one has hired a tradesperson or other professional to perform. (From the phrase buy-it-yourself.)while yakking — driving a car while talking on a cell phone.car or other vehicle rigged to act as a bomb. (From vehicle-borne improvised explosive device.)

(All options stink.) a situation in which there is no optimum or ideal course of action.to the dense cultivation of vegetables and other crops on small plots, particularly in urban settings. (From the phrase Small Plot Intensive).member of the Republican party who is viewed as being too liberal. Also: rino. a Republican in name onlyOF

(birds of a feather meeting)A meeting held at a computer-related trade show or conference in which people who work in the same technology area at different companies exchange information and experiences. (Often abbreviated as «BOF meeting.»)bricks-and-mortar companyreal estate development or other construction project to which the local residents are opposed. Acronym based on the phrase «locally unwanted land use.»

(Permanent global summertime), the ability to purchase at the wholesale level certain fruits and vegetables from different parts of the world at different times of the year, thus enabling retailers to offer this produce either year round or for longer periods than their traditional local growing seasons..depressed urban professional; a person who once had a high-status or high-paying job and must now work in a menial or lower paying jobEnd Of The World As We Know It; a catch-all phrase for the chaos and disruption that some people expect will occur in the new millennium., love, unity and respect. The unofficial credo of the rave scene.woman who finds motherhood and her children tedious and uninteresting. (Acronym from Smart, Middle-Class, Uninvolved, Mother.)term for a corporate officer, such as a CEO (chief executive officer) or CFO (chief financial officer). Also: CxO.Income, Two Children, Oppressive Mortgage. The natural evolution of upwardly-mobile couples who have children and then one spouse stops working to raise the kids.person who favors a project that would add a dangerous or unpleasant feature to his or her neighborhood. (Acronym from the phrase yes in my back yard.)Derivatives: -YIMBYist.n. -YIMBYism n.person with a substantial income, but who is not yet wealthy. (From the phrase High Earner, Not Rich Yet.)until no good; to change something so that it no longer works properly.young person who isn’t working, in school, or in a training program. (From the phrase Not in employment, education, or training.)’t have anyone over syndrome; not inviting guests to one’s house because it is too messy or cluttered.time to belly-up; the maximum number of days, weeks, or months that a company is expected to survive.person who hopes for or seeks the removal of some dangerous or unpleasant feature from his or her neighborhood. -GOOMBYism (GOOM.bee.iz.um) noun. The attitude of such a person. Get Out of My Backyard, uncertain, complex, and ambiguouscountries of Brazil, Russia, India, and China viewed as a group of emerging economies with large potential markets. -adj.person who consumes an excessive amount of alcohol while standing up. -adj. male volume vertical drinkerabsolutely nothing anywhere near anyone. A person who is opposed to new real estate development, particularly projects close to their neighbourhood. -adj.unexplained problem that resolves itself over time. (From the phrase just one of those things.)over there, either. A person or attitude that opposes new real estate development in the local community and is not open to compromise on this issue.neighborhood electric vehicle; a small electric car designed to travel at low speeds over short distances.ambitious or difficult plan or goal. big, hairy, audacious goal.adult son or daughter, particularly one aged 30 or more, who still lives with his or her parents. -adj. From kids in parents’ pockets eroding retirement savings.

33.DWB. Driving while black — when a car is pulled over by a police officer for no other reason than the driver is black.

/11

(nyn uh.lev.un)n. September 11, 2001, the date of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington. -adj. Also:9-11.group of people who routinely oppose new real estate developments and other projects that they believe will harm their local area. Acronym based on the phrase citizens against virtually everything. Also: CAVE people or CAVE dwellers.perceived notion that children of all ages are performing activites, particularly playing with toys, traditionally seen as being suitable for older children. (From Kids Getting Older Younger.)person or attitude that opposes all real estate development or other projects that would harm the environment or reduce property values.

(Not on Planet Earth)that is profoundly uninteresting and/or useless.sense of the word comes from the acronym WOMBAT: Waste Of Money Brains And Time.P

(pee.too.pee)1.Peer-to-peer adj. Describes a network or other technology that enables users to trade files directly without requiring a central database or server.2.Person-to-person adj. Describes a payment service that enables one individual to pay another for an online transaction (such as an auction sale). 3.Path to profitability n. The strategy a company plans to implement to become profitable..or inappropriate items donated to a charity organization or relief effort. (From the phrase Stuff WE DOn’t Want.)acronym formed from the initial letters of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, the name of an infectious disease, caused by a coronavirus, that affects the respiratory system and can in some cases be fatal.acronym based on the initial letters of Wireless Application Protocol, a specification supporting the transfer of data(especially for Internet access, including text and images) to and from a hand-held wireless device, especially a mobile phone with suitable display panel.Cto-consumer; describes transactions in which a consumer sells a service or product directly to another consumer.[12]

abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. The abbreviation is one of the main trends in development of Modern English, especially in its colloquial layer, which, in its turn at high degree is supported by development of modern informational technologies and simplification of alive speech.review of the subject discussedanalyzed the problem of shortening of words in Modern English we could do the following conclusions:) The problem of shortened words in Modern English is very actual nowadays.) There are several kinds of shortening: shortening proper, blending, abbreviations.) A number of famous linguists dealt with the problem of shortening of words in Modern English. In particular, Profs. Ullmann and Broal emphasized the social reasons for shortening, L. Lipka pointed out non-binary contrast or many-member lexical sets and gave the type which he called directional opposition, V.N. Comissarov and Walter Skeat proved the link of homonymy influence with the appearing of shortened words, etc.) The problem of shortening is still waits for its detail investigation.

The way of applying of the work.said about the perspectives of the work we hope that this work will find its worthy way of applying at schools, lyceums and colleges of high education by both teachers and students of English. We also express our hopes to take this work its worthy place among the lexicological works dedicated to the types of shortening.

Bibliography

1.Амандыкова Г. Н., Кабышева Л. М. Лексикология английского языка: учебник. — Астана: Фолиант, 2008. — 256 с.

2.Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. English Lexicology. — М.: Изд. дом «Дроф», 1999.- 288 с.

3.Бабич Г. Н. Lexicology: A Current Guide. Лексикология английского языка: Уч. пособ. / Г. Н. Бабич.- 5-е изд. — М.: Флинта: Наука, 2010. -200 с.

4.Луцкевич В. А., Иванова А. А., Поташников Н. М., Самойлова И. А. Англо-русский словарь современных сокращений. English-Russian Dictionary of Modern Abbreviations. — M.: Издательство «Русский язык», 2002. — 1056 c.

5.Ніколенко А. Г. Лексикологія англійської мови — теорія і практика. — Вінниця: Нова Книга, 2007. — 528 с.

6.Практический курс английского языка. 2 курс: учеб. Для студентов вузов/ (В. Д. Аракин и др.); под ред. В. А. Аракина. — 7-е изд, доп. и испр. — М.: Гуманитар. изд. Центр ВЛАДОС, 2005.- 516с.

7.Adams V. Introduction into English Word-Formation / V. Adams. — Lnd., 1983. — 200 p.

.Akhmanova O.S. Lexicology: Theory and Method. — M. 1972

.Arnold I.V. The English word. — М.: Высшая школа, 1986. — 295 с.

.Canon G. Historical Changes and English Wordformation: New Vocabulary items. — N.Y.,1986. — 284 p.

.Ginzburg R.S. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. — М.: Высш. школа, 1979. — 269 с.

.Causes and tendencies of English abbreviations. — [Електронний ресурс] — Режим доступу:

http://gendocs.ru/v12499/causes_and_tendencies_of_english_abbreviations

.Howard Ph. New words for Old. — Lnd., 1980. — 311 p.

14.Ingo Plag. Word-formation in English. — Cambidge University Press, 2002 — 264 p.

.Maurer D.W., High F.C. New Words — Where do they come from and where do they go. American Speech.,1982. -171 p.

.Modern English Lexicology: Theory and Practice: [Учеб. пособие для гуманитар. вузов] / Э. М. Дубенец . — М.: Глосса-Пресс, 2002. — 196 с.

.Schlauch Margaret. The English Language in Modern Times. — Warszava, 1965. — 342 p.

.Yskakov A. Shortening words // English. — 2003. — Jan. № 4. — C. 23 — 31.

.http//www.wordspy.com

.http://www.wikipedia.com

.http://kpfu.ru/docs/F1797492221/Lectures.on.Le_icology1.pdf

.http://www.neatorama.com/2007/11/26/origins-of-common-abbreviations/

An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short^[1]) is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method. It may consist of a group of letters or words taken from the full version of the word or phrase; for example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr., abbrv., or abbrev.; NPO, for nil (or nothing) per (by) os (mouth) is an abbreviated medical instruction. It may also consist of initials only, a mixture of initials and words, or words or letters representing words in another language (for example, e.g., i.e. or RSVP). Some types of abbreviations are acronyms (some pronounceable, some initialisms) or grammatical contractions or crasis.

An abbreviation is a shortening by any of these or other methods.

Types[edit]

Acronyms, initialisms, contractions and crasis share some semantic and phonetic functions, and all four are connected by the term «abbreviation» in loose parlance.^[2]: p167

An initialism is an abbreviation pronounced by spelling out each letter, i.e. FBI (/ˌɛf.biːˈaɪ/), USA (/ˌjuː.ɛsˈeɪ/), IBM (/ˌaɪ.biːˈɛm/), BBC (/ˌbiː.biːˈsiː/)

A contraction is a reduction in the length of a word or phrase made by omitting certain of its letters or syllables. Consequently, contractions are a subset of abbreviations. Often, but not always, the contraction includes the first and last letters or elements. Examples of contractions are «li’l» (for «little»), «I’m» (for «I am»), and «he’d’ve» (for «he would have»).

History[edit]

Abbreviations have a long history. They were created to avoid spelling out whole words. This might be done to save time and space (given that many inscriptions were carved in stone) and also to provide secrecy. In both Greece and Rome the reduction of words to single letters was common.^[3] In Roman inscriptions, «Words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words, and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation». However, «some could have more than one meaning, depending on their context. (For example, ⟨A⟩ can be an abbreviation for many words, such as ager, amicus, annus, as, Aulus, Aurelius, aurum and avus.)»^[4] Many frequent abbreviations consisted of more than one letter: for example COS for consul and COSS for its nominative etc. plural consules.

Abbreviations were frequently used in English from its earliest days. Manuscripts of copies of the Old English poem Beowulf used many abbreviations, for example the Tironian et (⁊) or & for and, and y for since, so that «not much space is wasted».^[5] The standardisation of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included a growth in the use of such abbreviations.^[6] At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master and ‹exacɔbate› for exacerbate. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time.

Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔ to quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ.

In the Early Modern English period, between the 15th and 17th centuries, the thorn Þ was used for th, as in Þ^e (‘the’). In modern times, ⟨Þ⟩ was often used (in the form ⟨y⟩) for promotional reasons, as in Y^e Olde Tea Shoppe.^[7]

During the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very fashionable. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence.^[8][9]

Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. This question is considered below.

Widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the Internet during the 1990s led to a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant and text messaging. The original SMS supported message lengths of 160 characters at most (using the GSM 03.38 character set), for instance.^[a] This brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese, with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated.^[10] More recently Twitter, a popular social networking service, began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits.

In HTML, abbreviations can be annotated using <abbr title="Meaning of the abbreviation.">abbreviation</abbr> to reveal its meaning by hovering the cursor.

Style conventions in English[edit]

In modern English, there are several conventions for abbreviations, and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent, and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a style guide. Some questions which arise are shown below.

Lowercase letters[edit]

If the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When a word is abbreviated to more than a single letter and was originally spelled with lower case letters then there is no need for capitalization. However, when abbreviating a phrase where only the first letter of each word is taken, then all letters should be capitalized, as in YTD for year-to-date, PCB for printed circuit board and FYI for for your information. However, see the following section regarding abbreviations that have become common vocabulary: these are no longer written with capital letters.

Periods (full stops) and spaces[edit]

A period (full stop) is often used to signify an abbreviation, but opinion is divided as to when and if this should happen.

According to Hart’s Rules, the traditional rule is that abbreviations (in the narrow sense that includes only words with the ending, and not the middle, dropped) terminate with a full stop, whereas contractions (in the sense of words missing a middle part) do not, but there are exceptions.^{[2]: p167–170} Fowler’s Modern English Usage says full stops are used to mark both abbreviations and contractions, but recommends against this practice: advising them only for abbreviations and lower-case initialisms and not for upper-case initialisms and contractions.^[11]

Example	Category	Short form	Source
Doctor	Contraction	Dr	D——r
Professor	Abbreviation	Prof.	Prof…
The Reverend	Abbreviation	Rev.	Rev…
The Reverend	Contraction	Revd	Rev——d
The Right Honourable	Contraction and Abbreviation	Rt Hon.	R——t Hon…

In American English, the period is usually included regardless of whether or not it is a contraction, e.g. Dr. or Mrs.. In some cases, periods are optional, as in either US or U.S. for United States, EU or E.U. for European Union, and UN or U.N. for United Nations. There are some house styles, however—American ones included—that remove the periods from almost all abbreviations. For example:

• The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, «Northwest Blvd», «W. Jefferson», and «PED XING» all follow this recommendation.)
• AMA style, used in many medical journals, uses no periods in abbreviations or acronyms, with almost no exceptions. Thus eg, ie, vs, et al, Dr, Mr, MRI, ICU, and hundreds of others contain no periods. The only exceptions are No. (an abbreviation of Numero, Number), to avoid confusion with the word «No»; initials within persons’ names (such as «George R. Smith»); and «St.» within persons’ names when the person prefers it (such as «Emily R. St. Clair») (but not in city names such as St Louis or St Paul).

Acronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer written with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, laser, snafu, and scuba.

Today, spaces are generally not used between single-letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters «U. S.»

When an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, only one period is used: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.

Plural forms[edit]

There is a question about how to pluralize abbreviations, particularly acronyms. Some writers tend to pluralize abbreviations by adding ‘s (apostrophe s), as in «two PC’s have broken screens», although this notation typically indicates possessive case. However, this style is not preferred by many style guides. For instance, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings,^[12] allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms «only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters». Turabian would therefore prefer «DVDs» and «URLs» and «Ph.D.’s», while the Modern Language Association^[13] explicitly says, «do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation». Also, the American Psychological Association specifically says,^[14][15] «without an apostrophe».

However, the 1999 style guide for The New York Times states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations, preferring «PC’s, TV’s and VCR’s».^[16]

Following those who would generally omit the apostrophe, to form the plural of run batted in, simply add an s to the end of RBI.^[17]

• RBIs

For all other rules, see below:

To form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase s to the end. Apostrophes following decades and single letters are also common.

• A group of MPs
• The roaring 20s
• Mind your Ps and Qs

To indicate the plural of the abbreviation or symbol of a unit of measure, the same form is used as in the singular.

• 1 lb or 20 lb
• 1 ft or 16 ft
• 1 min or 45 min

When an abbreviation contains more than one full point, Hart’s Rules recommends putting the s after the final one.

• Ph.D.s
• M.Phil.s
• the d.t.s

However, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as:

• PhDs
• MPhils
• the DTs. (This is the recommended form in the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.)

According to Hart’s Rules, an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.

• The x’s of the equation
• Dot the i’s and cross the t’s

However, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes:

• The xs of the equation
• Dot the ‘i’s and cross the ‘t’s

In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.

Singular abbreviation	Word/phrase	Plural abbreviation	Discipline
d.	didot	dd.	typography
f.	following line or page	ff.	notes
F.	folio	Ff.	literature
h.	hand	hh.	horse height
J.	Justice	JJ.	law (job title)
l.	line	ll.	notes
MS	manuscript	MSS	notes
op.	opus (plural: opera)	opp.	notes
p.	page	pp.	notes
Q.	quarto	Qq.	literature
s. (or §)	section	ss. (or §§)	notes
v.	volume	vv.	notes

Conventions followed by publications and newspapers[edit]

United States[edit]

Publications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of The Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated Press.^{[citation needed]} The U.S. Government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. The National Institute of Standards and Technology sets the style for abbreviations of units.

United Kingdom[edit]

Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:

• For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and The Guardian, have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:
  • Social titles, e.g. Ms or Mr (though these would usually have not had full stops—see above) Capt, Prof, etc.;
  • Two-letter abbreviations for countries («US», not «U.S.»);
  • Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms^{[clarification needed]});
  • Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters («PR», instead of «p.r.», or «pr»)
  • Names («FW de Klerk», «GB Whiteley», «Park JS»). A notable exception is The Economist which writes «Mr F. W. de Klerk».
  • Scientific units (see Measurement below).
• Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalized. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization can be abbreviated as «Nato» or «NATO», and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as «Sars» or «SARS» (compare with «laser» which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).
• Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the «British Broadcasting Corporation» is abbreviated to «BBC», never «Bbc». An initialism is also an acronym but is not pronounced as a word.
• When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C). (This is contrary to the SI standard; see below.)

Miscellaneous and general rules[edit]

• A doubled letter appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double «l» is a separate sound: «Ll. George» for (British prime minister) David Lloyd George.
• Some titles, such as «Reverend» and «Honourable», are spelt out when preceded by «the», rather than as «Rev.» or «Hon.» respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.
• A repeatedly used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage.^[18] Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.

Measurements: abbreviations or symbols[edit]

Writers often use shorthand to denote units of measure. Such shorthand can be an abbreviation, such as «in» for «inch» or can be a symbol such as «km» for «kilometre» (or kilometer).

In the International System of Units (SI) manual^[19] the word «symbol» is used consistently to define the shorthand used to represent the various SI units of measure. The manual also defines the way in which units should be written, the principal rules being:

• The conventions for upper and lower case letters must be observed—for example 1 MW (megawatts) is equal to 1,000,000 watts and 1,000,000,000 mW (milliwatts).
• No periods should be inserted between letters—for example «m.s» (which is an approximation of «m·s», which correctly uses middle dot) is the symbol for «metres multiplied by seconds», but «ms» is the symbol for milliseconds.
• No periods should follow the symbol unless the syntax of the sentence demands otherwise (for example a full stop at the end of a sentence).
• The singular and plural versions of the symbol are identical—not all languages use the letter «s» to denote a plural.

Syllabic abbreviation[edit]

A syllabic abbreviation is usually formed from the initial syllables of several words, such as Interpol = International + police. It is a variant of the acronym. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus, which combine two words without necessarily taking whole syllables from each.

By language[edit]

Albanian[edit]

In Albanian, syllabic acronyms are sometimes used for composing a person’s name, such as Migjeni – an abbreviation from his original name (Millosh Gjergj Nikolla) a famous Albanian poet and writer – or ASDRENI (Aleksander Stavre Drenova), another famous Albanian poet.

Other such names which are used commonly in recent decades are GETOAR, composed from Gegeria + Tosks (representing the two main dialects of the Albanian language, Gegë and Toskë, based on the country’s two main regions Gegëria and Toskëria, and Arbanon — which is an alternative way used to describe all Albanian lands.

English[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English. Some UK government agencies such as Ofcom (Office of Communications) and the former Oftel (Office of Telecommunications) use this style.

New York City has various neighborhoods named by syllabic abbreviation, such as Tribeca (Triangle below Canal Street) and SoHo (South of Houston Street). This usage has spread into other American cities, giving SoMa, San Francisco (South of Market) and LoDo, Denver (Lower Downtown), amongst others.

Chicago-based electric service provider ComEd is a syllabic abbreviation of (Commonwealth) and (Thomas) Edison.

Sections of California are also often colloquially syllabically abbreviated, as in NorCal (Northern California), CenCal (Central California), and SoCal (Southern California). Additionally, in the context of Los Angeles, California, the Syllabic abbreviation SoHo (Southern Hollywood) refers to the southern portion of the Hollywood neighborhood.

Partially syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US Navy, as they increase readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence DESRON 6 is used (in the full capital form) to mean «Destroyer Squadron 6», while COMNAVAIRLANT would be «Commander, Naval Air Force (in the) Atlantic.»

Syllabic abbreviations are a prominent feature of Newspeak, the fictional language of George Orwell’s dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The political contractions of Newspeak—Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)—are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German (q.v.) and Russian contractions (q.v.) in the 20th century. Like Nazi (Nationalsozialismus) and Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (Young Communists’ League), the contractions in Newspeak are supposed to have a political function by virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.^{[20]: 310–8}

A more recent syllabic abbreviation has emerged with the disease COVID-19 (COrona VIrus Disease 2019) caused by the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus (itself frequently abbreviated to SARS-CoV-2, partly an initialism).

German[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations were and are common in German; much like acronyms in English, they have a distinctly modern connotation, although contrary to popular belief, many date back to before 1933, if not the end of the Great War. Kriminalpolizei, literally criminal police but idiomatically the Criminal Investigation Department of any German police force, begat KriPo (variously capitalised), and likewise Schutzpolizei, the protection police or uniform department, begat SchuPo. Along the same lines, the Swiss Federal Railways’ Transit Police—the Transportpolizei—are abbreviated as the TraPo.

With the National Socialist German Workers’ Party gaining power came a frenzy of government reorganisation, and with it a series of entirely new syllabic abbreviations. The single national police force amalgamated from the Schutzpolizeien of the various states became the Ordnungspolizei or «order police»; the state KriPos together formed the Sicherheitspolizei or «security police»; and there was also the Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei) or «secret state police». The new order of the German Democratic Republic in the east brought about a conscious denazification, but also a repudiation of earlier turns of phrase in favour of neologisms such as Stasi for Staatssicherheit («state security», the secret police) and VoPo for Volkspolizei. The phrase politisches Büro, which may be rendered literally as office of politics or idiomatically as political party steering committee, became Politbüro.

Syllabic abbreviations are not only used in politics, however. Many business names, trademarks, and service marks from across Germany are created on the same pattern: for a few examples, there is Aldi, from Theo Albrecht, the name of its founder, followed by discount; Haribo, from Hans Riegel, the name of its founder, followed by Bonn, the town of its head office; and Adidas, from Adolf «Adi» Dassler, the nickname of its founder followed by his surname.

Russian[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations are very common in Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. They are often used as names of organizations. Historically, popularization of abbreviations was a way to simplify mass-education in 1920s (see Likbez).

Leninist organisations such as the Comintern (Communist International) and Komsomol (Kommunisticheskii Soyuz Molodyozhi, or «Communist youth union») used Russian language syllabic abbreviations. In the modern Russian language, words like Rosselkhozbank (from Rossiysky selskokhozyaystvenny bank — Russian Agricultural Bank, RusAg) and Minobrnauki (from Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki — Ministry of Education and Science) are still commonly used. In nearby Belarus, there are Beltelecom (Belarus Telecommunication) and Belsat (Belarus Satellite).

Spanish[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations are common in Spanish; examples abound in organization names such as Pemex for Petróleos Mexicanos («Mexican Petroleums») or Fonafifo for Fondo Nacional de Financimiento Forestal (National Forestry Financing Fund).

Malay and Indonesian[edit]

In Southeast Asian languages, especially in Malay languages, syllabic abbreviations are also common; examples include Petronas (for Petroliam Nasional, «National Petroleum»), its Indonesian equivalent Pertamina (from its original name Perusahaan Pertambangan Minyak dan Gas Bumi Negara, «State Oil and Natural Gas Mining Company»), and Kemenhub (from Kementerian Perhubungan, «Ministry of Transportation»)

Chinese and Japanese kanji[edit]

East Asian languages whose writing systems use Chinese characters form abbreviations similarly by using key Chinese characters from a term or phrase. For example, in Japanese the term for the United Nations, kokusai rengō (国際連合) is often abbreviated to kokuren (国連). (Such abbreviations are called ryakugo (略語) in Japanese; see also Japanese abbreviated and contracted words). The syllabic abbreviation of kanji words is frequently used for universities: for instance, Tōdai (東大) for Tōkyō daigaku (東京大学, University of Tokyo) and is used similarly in Chinese: Běidà (北大) for Běijīng Dàxué (北京大学, Peking University). The English phrase «Gung ho» originated as a Chinese abbreviation.

See also[edit]

• Abbreviation (music) – abbreviation in musical notation
• Clipping (morphology) – Reduction of a word to one of its parts
• Gramogram – Group of letters pronounced as if a word
• List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions
• List of abbreviations in photography
• Acronym – Word or name made from the initial components of the words of a sequence
  • List of acronyms
• List of business and finance abbreviations
• List of classical abbreviations
• List of medieval abbreviations
• Portmanteau – Word blending the sounds and combining the meanings of two others
  • List of portmanteaus
• Neologism – Newly coined term not accepted into mainstream language
• Numeronym – Number-based word
• RAS syndrome – Acronym redundantly coupled with its word(s)
• SMS language – Abbreviated slang used in text messaging
• Three-letter acronym – Abbreviation consisting of three letters
• The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster’s dictionary
• Unicode alias names and abbreviations – Names and aliases of Unicode characters

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Media related to Abbreviation at Wikimedia Commons
• Acronyms at Curlie