Abbreviation for word information

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INFO Information Governmental » Military Rate it:
—- ———————————————– ——–
411 Information Internet » Chat Rate it:
I Information Miscellaneous Rate it:
INFO Information Miscellaneous » Aircraft & Aviation Rate it:
INFO Information Miscellaneous » Automotive Rate it:

What is the full meaning of OFR?

Office of Financial Regulation

Also, What does .info stand for?

information in

Regarding this, What do the letters PF stand for? PF. Proof. PF. Power Forward (basketball)

What does PF mean in a text message?

Personal Favourite.

Likewise, What does the acronym data stand for?

Acronym Definition
——- ———————————————————————————–
DATA Data Analysis and Technical Assistance (Unit; Illinois Institute for Rural Affairs)
DATA Data-Aware Transport Activity (Nortel, ADC, Fujitsu, Etc)
DATA Design and Technology Academy (San Antonio, TX)
DATA Debt Aid and Trade for Africa

What does OFR mean in texting?

Rank Abbreviation Meaning
—– ———— ——————-
***** OFR Original Floyd-Rose

What does .NET stand for?

net is a top-level domain, also known as a TLD. Derived from the word network, it was originally developed for companies involved in networking technology.

What is dor short for?

Acronym Definition
——- ———————-
DOR Daily Outage Report
DOR Discharge on Request
DOR Due-Out Release
DOR Detailed Outage Report

What does OFR mean?

Acronym Definition
——- —————————————–
OFR Operating and Financial Review
OFR Office of the Federal Register (US NARA)
OFR Officer of the Federal Republic (Nigeria)
OFR Off Ramp

What does the acronym as stand for?

Acronym Definition
——- —————————————
AS American Samoa (US postal abbreviation)
AS Access System
AS Advanced Server (Microsoft Windows)
AS All Source

What is PF Internet?

pf is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for French Polynesia. The name pf derived from the French name of Polynésie française. … pf.

What is a PF friend?

A Passionate Friendship (PF), also known as, an Affectionate Friendship is a nonsexual, nonromantic, emotionally and physically intimate relationship between friends. … A relationship that feels naturally occurring from both sides rather than constructed and/or maintained in a one-sided manner.Aug 19, 2020

What is the full form of info?

The full form of Info is Information. It’s used on Miscellaneous ,Chat slang in Worldwide. Info means Information.

What does PF stand for slang?

Personal Favourite.

What does Dor mean in a text message?

Day of Rest

What PF stands for?

PF. Proof. PF. Power Forward (basketball)

What are .NET websites?

net – Stands for “Network,” and is generally associated with “umbrella” sites — sites that are home to a wide range of smaller websites. Network sites were initially created for services like internet providers, emailing services, and internet infrastructure.May 29, 2019

What is PF computer?

Page fault, a type of exception (error) in computer programming. Page file, a file used as an extension for computer memory.

What does PF mean in relationship?

Acronym Definition
——- —————————————-
P-F Pressure-Flow (relationship; cardiology)
P-F Power-Fusion (Flash website)

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We use abbreviations quite a lot in our daily routine. Getting along with some most common abbreviations in English will help you understand and initiate English conversations with your friends, family, colleagues, and people in general.

Abbreviations are the shortened form of commonly used words. Almost everyone loves abbreviations as they are easy to say and write. In this guide, we will go over a list of abbreviations that we are pretty sure you will find useful in your communications. But, before we get there, let’s define abbreviations and why they are so popular among English speakers.

What are abbreviations

Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases. They may contain only a few letters from the original word, or they may contain the first letters of each word in a phrase (in which case they are known as “acronyms”).

In the English language, abbreviations are extremely common. They are particularly popular in business English because they are short and easy to remember, making business documents and other workplace communication much more efficient.

Today, much business communication is done on the go via emails, texting, or messaging, often on small devices where typing is difficult. You type less, save many keystrokes, and make fewer typos (an abbreviation for “typing errors”) when you use abbreviations. You can use different English learning apps to design business documents using different abbreviations and at the same time give it a professional format.

Now let’s move towards some common abbreviations in English that everyone must know and use in their conversations.

Written abbreviations

The abbreviations listed below are only used in written communications. They are not normally used in spoken communication.

1.    dept

This is the short form for the department.

Example: Ensure every dept gets involved in the meeting.

2.    Attn:

This means attention or for the attention of.

Here’s the format that’s usually used in letters, emails, and memos: Attn: + [name or title of person]

Attn: Adam Smith

3.    pls

It is the short form for please.  You can use it in informal communication with colleagues or friends.

Example: Pls pick me up from school.

4.    approx.

This abbreviation can be used as a shortened form of the word approximate or approximately.

Example: We are expecting approx. 10 meetings regarding this project.

Spoken and written abbreviations

The below-mentioned abbreviations can be used in both spoken and written communications:

5.    doc

This one is short for the document.

Example: Can you email me the doc before 4 PM?

6.    TBA

This abbreviation for To Be Announced is frequently used in business event planning to indicate that something is scheduled to happen but that some details must still be confirmed and announced later.

Example: The new Managing Director will be joining us next month. The actual date is TBA.

7.    FYI

This is an abbreviation for the phrase For Your Information. It is often used to draw attention to certain information such as data, reports or file attachments.

Example: FYI, the details for the monthly bonus is attached to this email.

8.    HQ

This is the abbreviation for Headquarters.

Example: Meetings with the stakeholders are usually held at HQ.

9.    R&D

This is the abbreviation commonly used to refer to Research & Development, a department responsible for researching and developing new products.

Example: If you have a new product in mind, why not discuss it with the R&D Department to get it on board?

10. ASAP

This is the most common one and you might have come across this very popular abbreviation for As Soon As Possible.

Example: Kindly submit your presentation ASAP.

11. ETA

This denotes the Estimated Time of Arrival or the time someone is expected to arrive at their destination.

Example: Let me know your plane’s ETA so I can send the car to the airport to pick you up.

12. B2B

This is the abbreviation for Business-to-Business, a business relationship where a company’s customers are other businesses.

Example:  K. manufacturers is a popular B2B company that provides office supplies to other businesses.

13. B2C

It is the abbreviation for Business-to-Consumer, a business relationship where a company’s customers are individual consumers like you and me. An example of a B2C website you have probably heard of is Amazon. Most online shopping businesses are B2C.

14. RFP

It is a normal practice for companies to release a Request for Proposals from suppliers who are interested in bidding to complete a project for the company.

Example: The concerned department is still waiting for one more RFP from a company in America before we decide.

15. HR

This is short for Human Resources, which is the department that regulates the employees of a company.

Example: The HR of the company will let you know about the pay scale.

16. SEO

This abbreviation is used in the field of Information Technology (IT) to refer to Search Engine Optimization, a technique for attracting visitors from search engines such as Google to your website.

Example: We must improve the SEO of our web store to attract more buyers online.

17. P&L

This stands for Profit & Loss, which is a statement of accounts showing a company’s financial position.

Example: The stakeholders won’t be satisfied with the P&L this year.

18. IPO

An Initial Public Offering is the first time a company offers to sell its stock to the public.

Example: we have not exactly decided what the pricing of the IPO will be.

19. ISP

It is used in IT to refer to Internet Service Provider, a company such as AT&T that specializes in providing internet access to subscribers.

Example: Our ISP has been informed about the distortion of the internet during prime work hours.

20. PO

This is an abbreviation for Purchase Order, which is an official document issued by a company to a specific seller for items that the company intends to purchase.

Example: Denny has sent out a PO to the contractor who sold us those work tables.

21. CEO

It refers to the Chief Executive Officer or head of a business organization. It is one of the most common abbreviations used in daily routine English conversations.

Example: We will soon find out who our new CEO is.

22. CFO

This is the acronym for Chief Financial Officer or the head of finance in an organization.

Example: With our CFO on a foreign visit, who is in charge of finance these days?

23. PR

This is a common abbreviation used to refer to Public Relations, or the department or activities that create a good public image for the company.

Example: Improving our customer dealing can benefit our PR.

24. QC

This stands for Quality Control, an activity that ensures products are of an acceptable standard.

Example: All the company’s manufactured products go through detailed QC.

25. cc

This stands for carbon copy. It is a pre-email term that now refers to sending a copy of a letter or email to an additional person.

Example: Remember to cc the presentation to the manager.

These are the 25 most commonly used abbreviations in English. If you are an English learner, these abbreviations can help you understand different English writings and conversations. Apart from this, if you want to learn English online and looking for an authentic and professional English learning platform, try italki. Under the supervision of the best English tutor online (mostly English native speakers) you will become a fluent speaker within no time.

Frequently asked questions

Q. What does PCR stand for in business?

A. The put-call ratio (PCR) is a popular indicator for determining the mood of the options market.

Q. What is the BRN abbreviation?

A. The Board of Registered Nursing (BRN) is a state governmental agency established by law to protect the public by regulating the practice of registered nurses.

Q. What does RN mean in business?

A. RN stands for Registered Identification Number.

Conclusion

It is crucial for every English learner to understand these common abbreviations as they are widely used. In fact, learning them is as important as learning English pronouns as they all collectively make learners fluent English speakers.

Look for professional guidance if you find it difficult to deal with these short forms. Do visit italki to look for a suitable tutor who will help you learn basic English grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence formation.

This material provides general information about the use of English abbreviations.

Abbreviations: Main points

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or group of words. Depending on the abbreviation, it may be written in capital or small letters and with or without one or more periods. There are a lot of miscellaneous abbreviations in English.

For example: a.m. (before noon); e.g. (for example); etc. (and so on); ft. (foot, feet); lb. (pound, pounds); ESL (English as a second language); IBM (International Business Machines); ID (identification); Ltd. (limited); PC (personal computer); U.S. (United States).

Abbreviations are often used in tables, footnotes, lists, catalogs, orders and bills, drawings, drafts, figures, captions to illustrations, and the like – that is, where space is tight and brevity is necessary. Also, there may be many abbreviations in technical writing. Some abbreviations may also be used in informal writing (for example, in informal letters to friends and relatives).

Abbreviations in different written materials should be standard, recognizable and understandable; only the forms given in the dictionary should be used. A list of abbreviations and their full forms may be provided at the end of the material in which the abbreviations are used.

Formal writing

English texts of general nontechnical character (for example, books, stories, articles, reports, business correspondence) are usually regarded as formal writing. Abbreviations are rarely used in formal nontechnical texts, with the exception of certain standard abbreviations.

Standard abbreviations that are considered appropriate for use in formal written materials include titles used before surnames (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.), academic degrees (for example, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.), certain Latin abbreviations (a.m., p.m., A.D., B.C.), official abbreviated names of companies and organizations (for example, BBC, NATO, UN), and some others.

Miscellaneous other abbreviations are usually written in full in formal writing and are pronounced as full words. For example: two pounds (not «2 lb.»); twenty miles (not «20 mi.»); one example (not «one ex.»); new department (not «new dept.»); on Friday (not «on Fri.»); on Park Avenue (not «on Park Ave.»); in Texas (not «in Tex.»; not «in TX»).

In academic writing (for example, in reports, compositions, examination papers), learners of English should use those abbreviations that are required and recommended for use in formal writing of general character. (See «Choice of style» in Standard and Slang in the section Idioms.)

The use of abbreviations in formal writing, with examples in sentences, is described in the second part of the material below. (See «Abbreviations in formal writing» below.)

Types of abbreviations

In reference materials, abbreviations are often grouped according to their meaning and field of use, for example, technical abbreviations, computer abbreviations, medical abbreviations, legal abbreviations, sports abbreviations, and so on.

You can find various lists of English abbreviations in Wikipedia and on other sites; abbreviations and their pronunciation can be found in online dictionaries.

Some abbreviations are used only in writing and are pronounced in full in speech. For example, «lb.» and «bldg.» are used only as written abbreviations; they are read as «pound» and «building». Some other abbreviations are written and read as abbreviations, for example, «a.m., DNA».

Several types of abbreviations are described below, with spelling and pronunciation notes.

Abbreviations of units of measure

Abbreviations of units of measure are a large group that includes abbreviations of units of weight, length, area, volume, time, speed, and so on. Abbreviations of units of measure are most frequently used in tables, lists, catalogs, drawings, and the like.

For example: lb. (pound); oz. (ounce); gal. (gallon); ft. (foot); in. (inch); sq. mi. (square mile); cu. in. (cubic inch); sec. (second); min. (minute); hr. (hour); mph (miles per hour).

Examples of metric abbreviations: kg (AmE kilogram; BrE kilogramme); l (AmE liter; BrE litre); m (AmE meter; BrE metre); sq m (square meter); cu m (cubic meter).

Abbreviations of units of measure are read in full, as their full words. For example, «1 lb.» is read as «one pound»; «3 oz.» is read as «three ounces»; «5 ft.» is read as «five feet»; «2 m» is read as «two meters»; «1 sq. mi.» is read as «one square mile»; «2 cu. in.» is read as «two cubic inches»; «1 hr.» is read as «one hour».

Plural ending «s» is not added to written abbreviations of units of measure. For example: 1 in.; 3 in. (read as «one inch; three inches»); 5 lb. (read as «five pounds»); 1 m; 3 m (read as «one meter; three meters»).

Traditionally, though, English units of measure added «s» to some abbreviations in the plural, and such use may still be found in nontechnical texts. For example: 3 ins. (read as «three inches»); 2 yds. (read as «two yards»); 5 lbs. (five pounds); 10 yrs. (ten years); 2 hrs. (two hours).

Abbreviations of metric units of measure are usually written without periods and without plural «s». For example: 5 m (five meters); 4 km (four kilometers); 10 g (ten grams); 2 kg (two kilograms); 3 l (three liters); 2 sq km (two square kilometers); 5 cu cm (five cubic centimeters). Full forms (five meters, four kilometers, ten grams, etc.) are usually considered preferable in formal writing of general character.

In technical writing, units of measure are usually abbreviated, written without periods and without plural «s». In formal writing, units of measure are usually written in full, as full words.

Latin abbreviations

Latin abbreviations in English include a number of various abbreviations; some of them are quite common in written English. For example: a.m., p.m., e.g., i.e., etc.

Some Latin abbreviations are always read as abbreviations. For example, «a.m.» [‘ei’em] and «p.m.» [‘pi:’em]: He got up at 7:00 a.m. (read as «at seven a.m.»)

Some other Latin abbreviations are always read as full words of their English equivalents. For example, «e.g.» is read as «for example»; «i.e.» is read as «that is».

(Read more about Latin abbreviations in «Latin abbreviations in formal text» below. Also, various Latin abbreviations are described in Latin Expressions in English in the section Idioms.)

Abbreviations of names of countries, states, streets, months

Generally, the names of countries should not be abbreviated. Names of some countries may be abbreviated in tables, footnotes, and the like. There may be variants of spelling, as well as preferences in use. For example, «U.S.» is used as an adjective or noun; «U.S.A.» and «USA» are used as nouns; «USA» is used mostly in mailing addresses. The noun «United States» can be used in most cases.

Abbreviations of the names of the states of the United States exist in two variants: two-letter postal abbreviations and older traditional state abbreviations. For example: AL and Ala. (Alabama); CA and Calif. (California); KS and Kans. (Kansas); NC and N.C. (North Carolina); TN and Tenn. (Tennessee); WY and Wyo. (Wyoming). Abbreviated state names are read in the same way as their unabbreviated names. State abbreviations are usually spelled out in formal writing.

Abbreviations on road signs and in mailing addresses, for example, «Ave., Blvd., Hwy., Rd., R.R., St.; Apt., Bldg.», are said as their full words: «avenue, boulevard, highway, road, railroad, street; apartment, building».

Abbreviations of the names of months and days of the week, for example, «Jan., Feb., Mar., Jul., Sept., Dec.; Mon., Tues., Fri., Sat.», are said as their full words: «January, February, March, July, September, December; Monday, Tuesday, Friday, Saturday». Such abbreviations may be used where space is really tight (for example, in tables) or in informal writing (for example, in short messages to friends).

Acronyms

An acronym is formed from the initial letters of the words in a name or a phrase and is usually written in capital letters. Some acronyms are read as words. For example: NATO [‘neitou]; UNESCO [yu:’neskou]. The majority of acronyms are read letter by letter. For example: BBC [‘bi:’bi:’si:]; DNA [‘di:’en’ei]; IBM [‘ai’bi:’em]; U.S.A. [‘yu:’es’ei]. Acronyms read letter by letter are also called initialisms.

Some acronyms have become ordinary words written in small letters. For example, the word «radar» was formed from «radio detecting and ranging», the word «scuba» was formed from «self-contained underwater breathing apparatus», and the word «pixel» was formed from «picture element», but nothing in their spelling or pronunciation indicates that these words are acronyms.

Not every acronym that looks pronounceable as a word is in fact pronounced as a word. For example, «bit» (binary digit) is pronounced [bit], while «IT» (information technology) is pronounced [‘ai’ti:]; «ZIP» or «zip» (zone improvement program), as in «zip code» (BrE postcode), is pronounced [zip], while «VIP» (very important person) and «IP» (Internet Protocol) are pronounced [‘vi:’ai’pi:] and [‘ai’pi:].

Note: Informal and slang abbreviations and acronyms (for example, AFAIK, IMHO, LOL, OMG, TNX) are used by some Internet users on forums, in chatrooms, and in SMS messages. Such abbreviations and acronyms are not considered acceptable in formal writing.

Plural forms of acronyms

Plural ending «s» may be added directly to some acronyms (if the meaning allows, of course), usually to those acronyms that do not have internal periods: four URLs; two PCs; three TVs; many CDs.

Some linguists recommend using the apostrophe and «s» to form the plural of acronyms that have internal periods and/or both capital and small letters. For example: several Ph.D.’s (or several PhD’s).

Some other linguists object to using the apostrophe to form the plural. Usually, you can change the construction to avoid using the plural form (e.g., several Ph.D. degrees).

Indefinite article before acronyms

The indefinite article «a» is used before words beginning with a consonant sound; «an» is used before a vowel sound.

Compare the use of «a» or «an» depending on the pronunciation of the initial letter in these acronyms: a CD [‘si:’di:] player; an SMS [‘es’em’es] message; a PR manager; an ESL course; an HBO picture; a UN member state.

(See «Note: a, an» in Articles: Countable Nouns in the section Grammar.)

Other types of abbreviations

Contracted forms

A shortened or contracted form of a word or group of words, often with an apostrophe instead of omitted letters, is called a contraction. Contractions of auxiliary verbs are very common in English.

For example: «don’t, isn’t, aren’t, won’t» are contracted forms; «do not, is not, are not, will not» are full forms; «it’s» is a contraction of «it is» or «it has»; «let’s» is a contraction of «let us»; «o’er» is an archaic contraction of «over».

Standard contracted forms of auxiliary and modal verbs (for example, don’t, isn’t, can’t, shouldn’t) are usually considered acceptable in formal writing, though full forms may be preferable in more formal style.

Clipped forms

A clipped form of a word (a clipped word) is also regarded as a type of abbreviation.

For example: ad (advertisement); auto (automobile); bike (bicycle); bra (brassiere); chimp (chimpanzee); deli (delicatessen); exam (examination); flu (influenza); gas (gasoline); gym (gymnasium); lab (laboratory); math (mathematics); mike (microphone); phone (telephone); photo (photograph); plane (airplane); rhino (rhinoceros); sax (saxophone).

Clipped forms are usually informal, but some of them are also used in formal writing, for example, «cello» (violoncello).

Spelling notes

Abbreviations may have variants of spelling. Usually, main differences concern using capital or small letters and using periods. (Note: AmE period; BrE full stop.)

There are differences between British and American spelling of some abbreviations, especially in the use of periods. For example, «U.S.» and «U.K.» are usually found in American texts, and «US» and «UK» – in British texts. «Dr.» and «Mr.» are preferred in AmE (before surnames), while «Dr» and «Mr» are preferred in BrE.

Generally, periods are more often used in abbreviations written in small letters. Abbreviations written in capital letters (e.g., acronyms) tend to be written without periods, though traditionally many of them are still written with periods.

For example: a.m., e.g., i.e.; B.C. or BC, NB, N.B. or n.b. (nota bene = note well; take notice); PS or P.S. (postscript); NYC or N.Y.C. (New York City).

If an abbreviation with a period is at the end of a sentence, another period is not added. For example: They visited Washington, D.C. They arrived at 10 p.m.

Generally, there is no space between the letters of abbreviations (including acronyms) regardless of whether there are periods between the letters. Exceptions to this rule include square and cubic units of measure. For example: 1 sq. ft.; 2 sq. in.; 4 sq m; 3 cu. ft.; 1 cu. in.

There are some unusual plural forms. Compare these singular and plural forms: p., pg. (said as «page») – pp. (said as «pages»); MS., ms. (manuscript) – MSS., mss. (manuscripts).

Abbreviations-homographs

There are many homographs among English abbreviations. Their spelling may be the same or almost the same, but they stand for different words and have different meanings. For example, compare the following abbreviations: L.A., LA, La.; St., St.

«L.A.» may stand for «Latin America» or «Los Angeles»; «LA» and «La.» stand for «Louisiana». «St.» after a name stands for «Street» (for example, Franklin St., Beacon St.); «St.» before a name stands for «Saint» (for example, St. Peter, St. Louis).

These abbreviations are used in writing; they are pronounced as their full words in speech: Latin America; Los Angeles; Louisiana; Street; Saint. Note: In colloquial usage, L.A. (Los Angeles) may be pronounced [‘el’ei].

Many other abbreviations (especially one-letter abbreviations) may have many more variants; it may be difficult to recognize and understand them even with the help of a good dictionary. It is advisable to use only those abbreviations in texts of general character that readers can recognize and understand easily.

Abbreviations in formal writing

As mentioned above, abbreviations are rarely used in formal writing of general character. Stylebooks usually recommend avoiding abbreviations in formal and ordinary writing of general character, with the exception of certain standard abbreviations.

Standard abbreviations that are considered appropriate for use in formal writing are described below. (Of course, standard abbreviations acceptable in formal writing can also be used in tables, footnotes, lists, and the like.)

Titles and academic degrees

Titles before surnames

The titles «Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.» are used before surnames. For example: Mr. and Mrs. Stone will be back next Wednesday. Dr. Brown is a surgeon. Dr. Reed is a historian.

In American English, these titles are written with a period: Mr. Smith, Mrs. Jones, Ms. Reed, Dr. Edwards. In British English, they are usually written without a period: Mr Smith, Mrs Jones, Ms Reed, Dr Edwards.

Other titles of this kind may also be abbreviated (Prof. Redman, Capt. Miller), but it is advisable to write them in full (Professor Redman, Captain Miller) if they are used in sentences.

Abbreviated titles are pronounced as full words; for example, «Mr., Dr., Prof.» are pronounced as «Mister, Doctor, Professor». Note again that the titles «Mr., Mrs., Ms.» are always written in the abbreviated form before surnames.

(See more examples in the articles Forms of Address in the section Vocabulary and Articles with People’s Names in the section Grammar.)

Titles after surnames

Titles after surnames include abbreviations of academic degrees. For example: B.A., B.S., M.A., M.S., M.D., M.B.A., Ph.D. Or: BA, BS, MA, MS, MD, MBA, PhD.

Academic degrees are used after surnames. For example: The lecture will be given by Thomas Newman, M.D.

Academic degrees can also be used without a surname, but in a different construction. For example: He received his B.A. last year.

Titles used after surnames also include «Jr.» (Junior) and «Sr.» (Senior). In modern use, commas before and after «Jr.» and «Sr.» are not required. For example: James Edwards Jr. is a lawyer. Older use: James Edwards, Jr., is a lawyer.

Latin abbreviations in formal text

Abbreviations a.m., p.m., A.D., B.C.

Pronunciation: a.m. [‘ei’em]; p.m. [‘pi:’em]; A.D. [‘ei’di:]; B.C. [‘bi:’si:].

The abbreviations «a.m.» (ante meridiem = before noon) and «p.m.» (post meridiem = after noon) can be used if the time of day is indicated. For example: He works from 10:00 a.m. to 6:30 p.m.

In some cases, «a.m.» and «p.m.» can be replaced by «in the morning» and «in the afternoon; in the evening». For example: He works from ten in the morning to six thirty in the evening.

But «a.m.» and «p.m.» should not be used together with such words as «morning, afternoon, evening, o’clock», because «a.m.» and «p.m.» convey such meanings themselves. (See more examples in Time in the section Phrases.)

The abbreviations «A.D.» (Anno Domini) and «B.C.» (before Christ) indicate years of our era and years before our era. «A.D.» is placed before or after the date; «B.C.» is placed after the date. Alternative abbreviations for «A.D.» and «B.C.» are «C.E.» (the common era) and «B.C.E.» (before the common era).

Examples with «A.D.»: The Norman conquest of England took place in A.D. 1066. Beowulf, an epic English poem, probably dates from the eighth century A.D.

Example with «B.C.»: The first Punic War began in 264 B.C. and ended in 241 B.C.

Abbreviations e.g., i.e., etc.

The abbreviations «e.g.» (exempli gratia = for example) and «i.e.» (id est = that is; in other words) are read as full words of their English equivalents: «e.g.» is read as «for example»; «i.e.» is read as «that is».

The abbreviation «etc.» (pronounced «et cetera») means «and others; and so on». Note that «and» should not be used before «etc.» – the meaning of «etc.» already includes «and» («et» means «and»).

Stylebooks recommend using these abbreviations in parentheses; English equivalents are preferable in formal writing.

Examples with «i.e.» and «that is»: Homographs (i.e., words with the same spelling) are listed in dictionaries as separate entries. Compound words, that is, words consisting of two or more roots, may have variants of spelling.

Example with «etc.»: Illustrations (photographs, maps, drawings, etc.) are in the final part of this book.

Examples with «e.g.» and «for example» can be found in this material (for example, in «Spelling notes» above).

Acronyms in formal text

Official abbreviations of the names of companies and organizations in the form of acronyms (for example, BP, GM, MTV, NBA, NBC, NFL, VOA, WHO) can be used in formal texts of general character after indicating the full names of companies and organizations.

Stylebooks recommend writing out the full name, with the abbreviated name in parentheses, when it appears in the text for the first time. For example: British Petroleum (BP); GM (General Motors); World Health Organization (WHO). Then, if the abbreviated name is repeated in the text, it can be used without the full name.

If the abbreviated names of companies and organizations are well known (for example, BBC, CNN, IBM, NASA, NATO, UN, UNESCO), their full names may be omitted in text. (Learners of English should have a list of common abbreviations, including well-known acronyms.)

Note: Acronyms and full names of companies and organizations are neither italicized nor enclosed in quotation marks. For example: She worked as an office clerk at IBM.

Other acronyms are generally used in the same way. Some acronyms are considered to be well known; their full names may be omitted in text. For example: CD, DNA, DVD, FM, GMT, IQ, MP3, PDF, UFO, Wi-Fi. Some acronyms are more recognizable than the phrases from which they were formed (for example, DNA, IQ, MP3).

Nevertheless, a list of abbreviations and their full forms at the end of the material in which they are used can be very helpful, especially for learners of English.

(Read more about acronyms in «Acronyms» and «Spelling notes» above.)

Сокращения

Данный материал даёт общую информацию об употреблении английских сокращений.

Сокращения: Основные положения

Сокращение – это укороченная форма слова или группы слов. В зависимости от сокращения, оно может быть написано большими или маленькими буквами и с одной или более точек или без них. В английском языке очень много разных сокращений.

Например: a.m. (before noon); e.g. (for example); etc. (and so on); ft. (foot, feet); lb. (pound, pounds); ESL (English as a second language); IBM (International Business Machines); ID (identification); Ltd. (limited); PC (personal computer); U.S. (United States).

Сокращения используются в таблицах, сносках, списках, каталогах, заказах и счетах, рисунках, чертежах, подписях к иллюстрациям и т.п. – то есть там, где мало места и необходима краткость. Также, много сокращений может быть в технических письменных материалах. Некоторые сокращения могут также использоваться в неофициальных текстах (например, в неофициальных письмах друзьям и родственникам).

Сокращения в различных письменных материалах должны быть стандартными, узнаваемыми и понятными; следует использовать только формы, данные в словаре. Список сокращений и их полных форм может быть предоставлен в конце материала, в котором используются сокращения.

Официальный стиль письма

Английские тексты общего нетехнического характера (например, книги, рассказы, статьи, доклады, деловая переписка) обычно рассматриваются как официальные письменные материалы. Сокращения редко используются в официальных нетехнических текстах, за исключением некоторых стандартных сокращений.

Стандартные сокращения, которые считаются подходящими для использования в официальных письменных материалах, включают в себя титулы перед фамилиями (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.), учёные степени (например, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.), некоторые латинские сокращения (a.m., p.m., A.D., B.C.), официальные аббревиатуры названий компаний и организаций (например, BBC, NATO, UN), и некоторые другие.

Разнообразные другие сокращения обычно пишутся полностью в официальной письменной речи и произносятся как полные слова. Например: two pounds (а не «2 lb.»); twenty miles (а не «20 mi.»); one example (а не «one ex.»); new department (а не «new dept.»); on Friday (а не «on Fri.»); on Park Avenue (а не «on Park Ave.»); in Texas (не «in Tex.»; не «in TX»).

В учебных письменных работах (например, в докладах, сочинениях, экзаменационных работах), изучающим английский язык следует использовать те сокращения, которые требуются и рекомендуются для употребления в официальной письменной речи общего характера. (См. «Choice of style» в статье «Standard and Slang» в разделе Idioms.)

Употребление сокращений в официальных письменных материалах, с примерами в предложениях, описывается во второй части материала ниже. (См. «Abbreviations in formal writing» ниже.)

Типы сокращений

В справочных материалах, сокращения часто объединены по их значению и области употребления, например, технические сокращения, компьютерные сокращения, медицинские сокращения, юридические сокращения, спортивные сокращения и т.д.

Вы можете найти различные списки английских сокращений в Wikipedia и на других сайтах; сокращения и их произношение можно найти в онлайн-словарях.

Некоторые сокращения используются только на письме и произносятся полностью в речи. Например, «lb.» и «bldg.» используются только как письменные сокращения; они читаются как «pound» и «building». Некоторые другие сокращения пишутся и читаются как сокращения, например, «a.m., DNA».

Несколько типов сокращений описаны ниже, с заметками по написанию и произношению.

Сокращения единиц измерения

Сокращения единиц измерения – большая группа, которая включает сокращения единиц веса, длины, площади, объёма, времени, скорости и т.д. Сокращения единиц измерения наиболее часто используются в таблицах, списках, каталогах, рисунках и т.п.

Например: lb. (pound); oz. (ounce); gal. (gallon); ft. (foot); in. (inch); sq. mi. (square mile); cu. in. (cubic inch); sec. (second); min. (minute); hr. (hour); mph (miles per hour).

Примеры метрических сокращений: kg (AmE kilogram; BrE kilogramme); l (AmE liter; BrE litre); m (AmE meter; BrE metre); sq m (square meter); cu m (cubic meter).

Сокращения единиц измерения читаются полностью, как их полные слова. Например, «1 lb.» читается как «one pound»; «3 oz.» читается как «three ounces»; «5 ft.» читается как «five feet»; «2 m» читается как «two meters»; «1 sq. mi.» читается как «one square mile»; «2 cu. in.» читается как «two cubic inches»; «1 hr.» читается как «one hour».

Окончание «s» множественного числа не прибавляется к письменным сокращениям единиц измерения. Например: 1 in.; 3 in. (читаются как «one inch; three inches»); 5 lb. (читается как «five pounds»); 1 m; 3 m (читаются как «one meter; three meters»).

Традиционно, однако, английские единицы измерения прибавляли «s» к некоторым сокращениям во мн. числе, и такое употребление всё ещё можно найти в нетехнических текстах. Например: 3 ins. (читается как «three inches»); 2 yds. (читается как «two yards»); 5 lbs. (five pounds); 10 yrs. (ten years); 2 hrs. (two hours).

Сокращения метрических единиц измерения обычно пишутся без точек и без окончания «s» мн. числа. Например: 5 m (five meters); 4 km (four kilometers); 10 g (ten grams); 2 kg (two kilograms); 3 l (three liters); 2 sq km (two square kilometers); 5 cu cm (five cubic centimeters). Полные формы (five meters, four kilometers, ten grams и т.д.) обычно считаются предпочтительными в официальной письменной речи общего характера.

В технических текстах, единицы измерения обычно сокращаются, пишутся без точек и без окончания «s» мн. числа. В официальной письменной речи, единицы измерения обычно пишутся полностью, как полные слова.

Латинские сокращения

Латинские сокращения в английском языке включают в себя ряд различных сокращений; некоторые из них весьма употребительны в письменном английском языке. Например: a.m., p.m., e.g., i.e., etc.

Некоторые латинские сокращения всегда читаются как сокращения. Например, «a.m.» [‘ei’em] and «p.m.» [‘pi:’em]: He got up at 7:00 a.m. (читается как «at seven a.m.»)

Некоторые другие латинские сокращения всегда читаются как полные слова их английских эквивалентов. Например, «e.g.» читается как «for example»; «i.e.» читается как «that is».

(Прочитайте ещё о латинских сокращениях в части «Latin abbreviations in formal text» ниже. Также, различные латинские сокращения описаны в материале «Latin Expressions in English» в разделе Idioms.)

Сокращения названий стран, штатов, улиц, месяцев

Обычно, названия стран не следует сокращать. Названия некоторых стран могут сокращаться в таблицах, сносках и т.п. Могут быть варианты написания, а также предпочтения в употреблении. Например, «U.S.» употребляется как прилагательное или существительное; «U.S.A.» и «USA» употребляются как существительные; «USA» употребляется в основном в почтовых адресах. Существительное «United States» можно употребить в большинстве случаев.

Сокращения названий штатов США существуют в двух вариантах: двухбуквенные почтовые сокращения и более старые традиционные сокращения. Например: AL и Ala. (Alabama); CA и Calif. (California); KS и Kans. (Kansas); NC и N.C. (North Carolina); TN и Tenn. (Tennessee); WY и Wyo. (Wyoming). Сокращённые названия штатов читаются так же, как их несокращённые названия. Сокращения названий штатов обычно пишутся полностью в официальных текстах.

Сокращения на дорожных знаках и в почтовых адресах, например, «Ave., Blvd., Hwy., Rd., R.R., St.; Apt., Bldg.», читаются как их полные слова: «avenue, boulevard, highway, road, railroad, street; apartment, building».

Сокращения названий месяцев и дней недели, например, «Jan., Feb., Mar., Jul., Sept., Dec.; Mon., Tues., Fri., Sat.», читаются как их полные слова: «January, February, March, July, September, December; Monday, Tuesday, Friday, Saturday». Такие сокращения могут использоваться там, где места совсем мало (например, в таблицах), или в неофициальных текстах (например, в кратких сообщениях друзьям).

Акронимы

Акроним образуется из начальных букв слов в названии или фразе и обычно пишется заглавными буквами. Некоторые акронимы читаются как слова. Например: NATO [‘neitou]; UNESCO [yu:’neskou]. Большинство акронимов читаются по буквам (буква за буквой). Например: BBC [‘bi:’bi:’si:]; DNA [‘di:’en’ei]; IBM [‘ai’bi:’em]; U.S.A. [‘yu:’es’ei]. Акронимы, читаемые по буквам, также называются «initialisms».

Некоторые акронимы стали обычными словами, которые пишутся маленькими буквами. Например, слово «radar» было образовано из фразы «radio detecting and ranging», слово «scuba» было образовано из «self-contained underwater breathing apparatus», а слово «pixel» было образовано из «picture element», но ничто в их написании и произношении не указывает, что эти слова являются акронимами.

Не каждый акроним, который выглядит произносимым как слово, на самом деле произносится как слово. Например, «bit» (binary digit) произносится [bit], в то время как «IT» (information technology) произносится [‘ai’ti:]; «ZIP» или «zip» (zone improvement program), как в «zip code» (BrE postcode), произносится [zip], в то время как «VIP» (very important person) и «IP» (Internet Protocol) произносятся [‘vi:’ai’pi:] и [‘ai’pi:].

Примечание: Неофициальные и сленговые сокращения и акронимы (например, AFAIK, IMHO, LOL, OMG, TNX) используются некоторыми пользователями Интернета на форумах, в чатах и в SMS-сообщениях. Такие сокращения и акронимы не считаются приемлемыми в официальных письменных материалах.

Формы мн. числа акронимов

Окончание «s» мн. числа может прибавляться напрямую к некоторым акронимам (если значение позволяет, конечно), обычно к тем акронимам, у которых нет внутренних точек: four URLs; two PCs; three TVs; many CDs.

Некоторые лингвисты рекомендуют использовать апостроф и «s» для образования мн. числа акронимов, имеющих внутренние точки и/или большие и маленькие буквы. Например: several Ph.D.’s (or several PhD’s).

Некоторые другие лингвисты возражают против использования апострофа для образования мн. числа. Обычно можно изменить конструкцию, чтобы избежать употребления формы мн. числа (например, several Ph.D. degrees).

Неопределенный артикль перед акронимами

Неопределённый артикль «a» употребляется перед словами, начинающимися с согласного звука; «an» употребляется перед гласным звуком.

Сравните употребление «a» или «an» в зависимости от произношения начальной буквы в этих акронимах: a CD [‘si:’di:] player; an SMS [‘es’em’es] message; a PR manager; an ESL course; an HBO picture; a UN member state.

(См. «Note: a, an» в статье «Articles: Countable Nouns» в разделе Grammar.)

Другие типы сокращений

Сокращенные формы

Укороченная или сокращённая форма слова или группы слов, часто с апострофом вместо пропущенных букв, называется «contraction». Сокращения вспомогательных глаголов очень употребительны в английском языке.

Например: «don’t, isn’t, aren’t, won’t» – сокращённые формы; «do not, is not, are not, will not» – полные формы; «it’s» – сокращение «it is» или «it has»; «let’s» – сокращение «let us»; «o’er» – устаревшее сокращение «over».

Стандартные сокращённые формы вспомогательных и модальных глаголов (например, don’t, isn’t, can’t, shouldn’t) обычно считаются приемлемыми в официальной письменной речи, хотя полные формы могут быть предпочтительными в более официальном стиле.

Усеченные формы

Сокращённая / усечённая форма слова (сокращённое слово, усечённое слово) также считается типом сокращения.

Например: ad (advertisement); auto (automobile); bike (bicycle); bra (brassiere); chimp (chimpanzee); deli (delicatessen); exam (examination); flu (influenza); gas (gasoline); gym (gymnasium); lab (laboratory); math (mathematics); mike (microphone); phone (telephone); photo (photograph); plane (airplane); rhino (rhinoceros); sax (saxophone).

Усечённые формы слов обычно неофициальны, но некоторые из них также употребляются в официальной письменной речи, например, «cello» (violoncello).

Заметки по написанию

Сокращения могут иметь варианты написания. Обычно, основные различия касаются употребления больших или маленьких букв и употребления точек. (Примечание: AmE period; BrE full stop.)

Есть различия между британским и американским написанием некоторых сокращений, особенно в употреблении точек. Например, в американских текстах обычно встречаются «U.S.» и «U.K.», а в британских текстах – «US» и «UK». В AmE предпочтительны «Dr.» и «Mr.» (перед фамилиями), в то время как в BrE предпочтительны «Dr» и «Mr».

Обычно, точки чаще ставятся в сокращениях, написанных маленькими буквами. Сокращения, написанные заглавными буквами (например, акронимы), чаще пишутся без точек, хотя традиционно многие из них всё ещё пишутся с точками.

Например: a.m., e.g., i.e.; B.C. или BC, NB, N.B. или n.b. (nota bene = note well; take notice); PS или P.S. (postscript); NYC или N.Y.C. (New York City).

Если сокращение с точкой стоит в конце предложения, ещё одна точка не добавляется. Например: They visited Washington, D.C. They arrived at 10 p.m.

Обычно нет пробела между буквами сокращений (включая акронимы) независимо от того, есть ли точки между буквами. Исключения из этого правила включают в себя квадратные и кубические единицы измерения. Например: 1 sq. ft.; 2 sq. in.; 4 sq m; 3 cu. ft.; 1 cu. in.

Есть необычные формы мн. числа. Сравните эти формы ед. числа и мн. числа: p., pg. (произносится как «page») – pp. (произносится как «pages»); MS., ms. (manuscript) – MSS., mss. (manuscripts).

Сокращения-омографы

Среди английских сокращений много омографов. Их написание может быть одинаковым или почти одинаковым, но они представляют разные слова и имеют разные значения. Например, сравните следующие сокращения: L.A., LA, La.; St., St.

«L.A.» может значить «Latin America» или «Los Angeles»; «LA» и «La.» означают «Louisiana». «St.» после названия означает «Street» (например, Franklin St., Beacon St.); «St.» перед именем / названием означает «Saint» (например, St. Peter, St. Louis).

Эти сокращения используются на письме; они произносятся как их полные слова в речи: Latin America; Los Angeles; Louisiana; Street; Saint. Примечание: В разговорном употреблении, L.A. (Los Angeles) может произноситься [‘el’ei].

Многие другие сокращения (особенно сокращения в виде одной буквы) могут иметь гораздо больше вариантов; может быть трудно узнать и понять их даже с помощью хорошего словаря. Желательно употреблять в текстах общего характера только те сокращения, которые читатели могут легко узнать и понять.

Сокращения в официальной письменной речи

Как сказано выше, сокращения редко используются в официальной письменной речи общего характера. Справочники по стилю обычно рекомендуют избегать сокращений в официальных и обычных текстах общего характера, за исключением некоторых стандартных сокращений.

Стандартные сокращения, которые считаются подходящими для использования в официальной письменной речи, описаны ниже. (Конечно, стандартные сокращения, приемлемые в официальных текстах, могут также использоваться в таблицах, сносках, списках и т.п.)

Титулы и учёные степени

Титулы перед фамилиями

Титулы «Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr.» ставятся перед фамилиями. Например: Mr. and Mrs. Stone will be back next Wednesday. Dr. Brown is a surgeon. Dr. Reed is a historian.

В американском английском эти титулы пишутся с точкой: Mr. Smith, Mrs. Jones, Ms. Reed, Dr. Edwards. В британском английском они обычно пишутся без точки: Mr Smith, Mrs Jones, Ms Reed, Dr Edwards.

Другие титулы (звания) такого типа тоже могут сокращаться (Prof. Redman, Capt. Miller), но рекомендуется писать их полностью (Professor Redman, Captain Miller) при употреблении их в предложениях.

Сокращённые титулы произносятся как полные слова; например, «Mr., Dr., Prof.» произносятся как «Mister, Doctor, Professor». Еще раз обратите внимание, что титулы «Mr., Mrs., Ms.» всегда пишутся в сокращённой форме перед фамилиями.

(Посмотрите ещё примеры в статьях «Forms of Address» в разделе Vocabulary и «Articles with People’s Names» в разделе Grammar.)

Титулы после фамилий

Титулы после фамилий включают в себя сокращения учёных степеней. Например: B.A., B.S., M.A., M.S., M.D., M.B.A., Ph.D. Или: BA, BS, MA, MS, MD, MBA, PhD.

Учёные степени ставятся после фамилий. Например: The lecture will be given by Thomas Newman, M.D.

Учёные степени также могут употребляться без фамилии, но в другой конструкции. Например: He received his B.A. last year.

Титулы после фамилий также включают в себя «Jr.» (Junior) и «Sr.» (Senior). В современном употреблении, запятые перед и после «Jr.» и «Sr.» не требуются. Например: James Edwards Jr. is a lawyer. Прежнее употребление: James Edwards, Jr., is a lawyer.

Латинские сокращения в официальном тексте

Сокращения a.m., p.m., A.D., B.C.

Произношение: a.m. [‘ei’em]; p.m. [‘pi:’em]; A.D. [‘ei’di:]; B.C. [‘bi:’si:].

Сокращения «a.m.» (ante meridiem = before noon) и «p.m.» (post meridiem = after noon) можно употребить, если указано время дня. Например: He works from 10:00 a.m. to 6:30 p.m.

В некоторых случаях, «a.m.» и «p.m.» можно заменить фразами «in the morning» и «in the afternoon; in the evening». Например: He works from ten in the morning to six thirty in the evening.

Но «a.m.» и «p.m.» не следует употреблять вместе с такими словами, как «morning, afternoon, evening, o’clock», т.к. «a.m.» и «p.m.» передают такие значения сами. (Посмотрите ещё примеры в материале «Time» в разделе Phrases.)

Сокращения «A.D.» (Anno Domini) и «B.C.» (before Christ) указывают годы нашей эры и годы до нашей эры. «A.D.» (н.э.) ставится до или после даты; «B.C.» (до н.э.) ставится после даты. Альтернативными сокращениями для «A.D.» и «B.C.» являются «C.E.» (the common era) и «B.C.E.» (before the common era).

Примеры с «A.D.»: The Norman conquest of England took place in A.D. 1066. Beowulf, an epic English poem, probably dates from the eighth century A.D.

Пример с «B.C.»: The first Punic War began in 264 B.C. and ended in 241 B.C.

Сокращения e.g., i.e., etc.

Сокращения «e.g.» (exempli gratia = for example) и «i.e.» (id est = that is; in other words) читаются как полные слова их английских эквивалентов: «e.g.» читается как «for example»; «i.e.» читается как «that is».

Сокращение «etc.» (произносится «et cetera») значит «and others; and so on». Обратите внимание, что не следует употреблять «and» перед «etc.» – значение «etc.» уже включает в себя «and» («et» значит «and»).

Справочники по стилю рекомендуют употреблять эти сокращения в скобках; английские эквиваленты предпочтительны в официальной письменной речи.

Примеры с «i.e.» и «that is»: Homographs (i.e., words with the same spelling) are listed in dictionaries as separate entries. Compound words, that is, words consisting of two or more roots, may have variants of spelling.

Пример с «etc.»: Illustrations (photographs, maps, drawings, etc.) are in the final part of this book.

Примеры с «e.g.» и «for example» можно найти в данном материале (например, в части «Spelling notes» выше).

Акронимы в официальном тексте

Официальные сокращения названий компаний и организаций (аббревиатуры) в виде акронимов (например, BP, GM, MTV, NBA, NBC, NFL, VOA, WHO) могут использоваться в официальных текстах общего характера после указания полных названий компаний и организаций.

Справочники по стилю рекомендуют написать полное название, затем сокращённое название в скобках, когда оно появляется в тексте в первый раз. Например: British Petroleum (BP); GM (General Motors); World Health Organization (WHO). Затем, если сокращённое название повторяется в тексте, его можно использовать без полного названия.

Если сокращённые названия названий компаний и организаций хорошо известны (например, BBC, CNN, IBM, NASA, NATO, UN, UNESCO), их полные названия могут опускаться в тексте. (Изучающим английский язык следует иметь список употребительных сокращений, включая известные акронимы.)

Примечание: Акронимы и полные названия компаний и организаций не выделяются курсивом и не берутся в кавычки. Например: She worked as an office clerk at IBM.

Другие акронимы обычно употребляются таким же образом. Некоторые акронимы считаются хорошо известными; их полные названия могут опускаться в тексте. Например: CD, DNA, DVD, FM, GMT, IQ, MP3, PDF, UFO, Wi-Fi. Некоторые акронимы более узнаваемы, чем фразы, из которых они были образованы (например, DNA, IQ, MP3).

Тем не менее, список сокращений и их полных форм в конце материала, в котором они используются, может быть очень полезным, особенно для изучающих английский язык.

(Прочитайте ещё об акронимах в частях «Acronyms» и «Spelling notes» выше.)

An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short^[1]) is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method. It may consist of a group of letters or words taken from the full version of the word or phrase; for example, the word abbreviation can itself be represented by the abbreviation abbr., abbrv., or abbrev.; NPO, for nil (or nothing) per (by) os (mouth) is an abbreviated medical instruction. It may also consist of initials only, a mixture of initials and words, or words or letters representing words in another language (for example, e.g., i.e. or RSVP). Some types of abbreviations are acronyms (some pronounceable, some initialisms) or grammatical contractions or crasis.

An abbreviation is a shortening by any of these or other methods.

Types[edit]

Acronyms, initialisms, contractions and crasis share some semantic and phonetic functions, and all four are connected by the term «abbreviation» in loose parlance.^[2]: p167

An initialism is an abbreviation pronounced by spelling out each letter, i.e. FBI (/ˌɛf.biːˈaɪ/), USA (/ˌjuː.ɛsˈeɪ/), IBM (/ˌaɪ.biːˈɛm/), BBC (/ˌbiː.biːˈsiː/)

A contraction is a reduction in the length of a word or phrase made by omitting certain of its letters or syllables. Consequently, contractions are a subset of abbreviations. Often, but not always, the contraction includes the first and last letters or elements. Examples of contractions are «li’l» (for «little»), «I’m» (for «I am»), and «he’d’ve» (for «he would have»).

History[edit]

Abbreviations have a long history. They were created to avoid spelling out whole words. This might be done to save time and space (given that many inscriptions were carved in stone) and also to provide secrecy. In both Greece and Rome the reduction of words to single letters was common.^[3] In Roman inscriptions, «Words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words, and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation». However, «some could have more than one meaning, depending on their context. (For example, ⟨A⟩ can be an abbreviation for many words, such as ager, amicus, annus, as, Aulus, Aurelius, aurum and avus.)»^[4] Many frequent abbreviations consisted of more than one letter: for example COS for consul and COSS for its nominative etc. plural consules.

Abbreviations were frequently used in English from its earliest days. Manuscripts of copies of the Old English poem Beowulf used many abbreviations, for example the Tironian et (⁊) or & for and, and y for since, so that «not much space is wasted».^[5] The standardisation of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included a growth in the use of such abbreviations.^[6] At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master and ‹exacɔbate› for exacerbate. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time.

Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔ to quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ.

In the Early Modern English period, between the 15th and 17th centuries, the thorn Þ was used for th, as in Þ^e (‘the’). In modern times, ⟨Þ⟩ was often used (in the form ⟨y⟩) for promotional reasons, as in Y^e Olde Tea Shoppe.^[7]

During the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very fashionable. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence.^[8][9]

Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. This question is considered below.

Widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the Internet during the 1990s led to a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant and text messaging. The original SMS supported message lengths of 160 characters at most (using the GSM 03.38 character set), for instance.^[a] This brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese, with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated.^[10] More recently Twitter, a popular social networking service, began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits.

In HTML, abbreviations can be annotated using <abbr title="Meaning of the abbreviation.">abbreviation</abbr> to reveal its meaning by hovering the cursor.

Style conventions in English[edit]

In modern English, there are several conventions for abbreviations, and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent, and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a style guide. Some questions which arise are shown below.

Lowercase letters[edit]

If the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When a word is abbreviated to more than a single letter and was originally spelled with lower case letters then there is no need for capitalization. However, when abbreviating a phrase where only the first letter of each word is taken, then all letters should be capitalized, as in YTD for year-to-date, PCB for printed circuit board and FYI for for your information. However, see the following section regarding abbreviations that have become common vocabulary: these are no longer written with capital letters.

Periods (full stops) and spaces[edit]

A period (full stop) is often used to signify an abbreviation, but opinion is divided as to when and if this should happen.

According to Hart’s Rules, the traditional rule is that abbreviations (in the narrow sense that includes only words with the ending, and not the middle, dropped) terminate with a full stop, whereas contractions (in the sense of words missing a middle part) do not, but there are exceptions.^{[2]: p167–170} Fowler’s Modern English Usage says full stops are used to mark both abbreviations and contractions, but recommends against this practice: advising them only for abbreviations and lower-case initialisms and not for upper-case initialisms and contractions.^[11]

Example	Category	Short form	Source
Doctor	Contraction	Dr	D——r
Professor	Abbreviation	Prof.	Prof…
The Reverend	Abbreviation	Rev.	Rev…
The Reverend	Contraction	Revd	Rev——d
The Right Honourable	Contraction and Abbreviation	Rt Hon.	R——t Hon…

In American English, the period is usually included regardless of whether or not it is a contraction, e.g. Dr. or Mrs.. In some cases, periods are optional, as in either US or U.S. for United States, EU or E.U. for European Union, and UN or U.N. for United Nations. There are some house styles, however—American ones included—that remove the periods from almost all abbreviations. For example:

• The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, «Northwest Blvd», «W. Jefferson», and «PED XING» all follow this recommendation.)
• AMA style, used in many medical journals, uses no periods in abbreviations or acronyms, with almost no exceptions. Thus eg, ie, vs, et al, Dr, Mr, MRI, ICU, and hundreds of others contain no periods. The only exceptions are No. (an abbreviation of Numero, Number), to avoid confusion with the word «No»; initials within persons’ names (such as «George R. Smith»); and «St.» within persons’ names when the person prefers it (such as «Emily R. St. Clair») (but not in city names such as St Louis or St Paul).

Acronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer written with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, laser, snafu, and scuba.

Today, spaces are generally not used between single-letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters «U. S.»

When an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, only one period is used: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.

Plural forms[edit]

There is a question about how to pluralize abbreviations, particularly acronyms. Some writers tend to pluralize abbreviations by adding ‘s (apostrophe s), as in «two PC’s have broken screens», although this notation typically indicates possessive case. However, this style is not preferred by many style guides. For instance, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings,^[12] allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms «only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters». Turabian would therefore prefer «DVDs» and «URLs» and «Ph.D.’s», while the Modern Language Association^[13] explicitly says, «do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation». Also, the American Psychological Association specifically says,^[14][15] «without an apostrophe».

However, the 1999 style guide for The New York Times states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations, preferring «PC’s, TV’s and VCR’s».^[16]

Following those who would generally omit the apostrophe, to form the plural of run batted in, simply add an s to the end of RBI.^[17]

• RBIs

For all other rules, see below:

To form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase s to the end. Apostrophes following decades and single letters are also common.

• A group of MPs
• The roaring 20s
• Mind your Ps and Qs

To indicate the plural of the abbreviation or symbol of a unit of measure, the same form is used as in the singular.

• 1 lb or 20 lb
• 1 ft or 16 ft
• 1 min or 45 min

When an abbreviation contains more than one full point, Hart’s Rules recommends putting the s after the final one.

• Ph.D.s
• M.Phil.s
• the d.t.s

However, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as:

• PhDs
• MPhils
• the DTs. (This is the recommended form in the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.)

According to Hart’s Rules, an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.

• The x’s of the equation
• Dot the i’s and cross the t’s

However, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes:

• The xs of the equation
• Dot the ‘i’s and cross the ‘t’s

In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.

Singular abbreviation	Word/phrase	Plural abbreviation	Discipline
d.	didot	dd.	typography
f.	following line or page	ff.	notes
F.	folio	Ff.	literature
h.	hand	hh.	horse height
J.	Justice	JJ.	law (job title)
l.	line	ll.	notes
MS	manuscript	MSS	notes
op.	opus (plural: opera)	opp.	notes
p.	page	pp.	notes
Q.	quarto	Qq.	literature
s. (or §)	section	ss. (or §§)	notes
v.	volume	vv.	notes

Conventions followed by publications and newspapers[edit]

United States[edit]

Publications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of The Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated Press.^{[citation needed]} The U.S. Government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. The National Institute of Standards and Technology sets the style for abbreviations of units.

United Kingdom[edit]

Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:

• For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and The Guardian, have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:
  • Social titles, e.g. Ms or Mr (though these would usually have not had full stops—see above) Capt, Prof, etc.;
  • Two-letter abbreviations for countries («US», not «U.S.»);
  • Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms^{[clarification needed]});
  • Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters («PR», instead of «p.r.», or «pr»)
  • Names («FW de Klerk», «GB Whiteley», «Park JS»). A notable exception is The Economist which writes «Mr F. W. de Klerk».
  • Scientific units (see Measurement below).
• Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalized. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization can be abbreviated as «Nato» or «NATO», and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as «Sars» or «SARS» (compare with «laser» which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).
• Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the «British Broadcasting Corporation» is abbreviated to «BBC», never «Bbc». An initialism is also an acronym but is not pronounced as a word.
• When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C). (This is contrary to the SI standard; see below.)

Miscellaneous and general rules[edit]

• A doubled letter appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double «l» is a separate sound: «Ll. George» for (British prime minister) David Lloyd George.
• Some titles, such as «Reverend» and «Honourable», are spelt out when preceded by «the», rather than as «Rev.» or «Hon.» respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.
• A repeatedly used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage.^[18] Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.

Measurements: abbreviations or symbols[edit]

Writers often use shorthand to denote units of measure. Such shorthand can be an abbreviation, such as «in» for «inch» or can be a symbol such as «km» for «kilometre» (or kilometer).

In the International System of Units (SI) manual^[19] the word «symbol» is used consistently to define the shorthand used to represent the various SI units of measure. The manual also defines the way in which units should be written, the principal rules being:

• The conventions for upper and lower case letters must be observed—for example 1 MW (megawatts) is equal to 1,000,000 watts and 1,000,000,000 mW (milliwatts).
• No periods should be inserted between letters—for example «m.s» (which is an approximation of «m·s», which correctly uses middle dot) is the symbol for «metres multiplied by seconds», but «ms» is the symbol for milliseconds.
• No periods should follow the symbol unless the syntax of the sentence demands otherwise (for example a full stop at the end of a sentence).
• The singular and plural versions of the symbol are identical—not all languages use the letter «s» to denote a plural.

Syllabic abbreviation[edit]

A syllabic abbreviation is usually formed from the initial syllables of several words, such as Interpol = International + police. It is a variant of the acronym. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus, which combine two words without necessarily taking whole syllables from each.

By language[edit]

Albanian[edit]

In Albanian, syllabic acronyms are sometimes used for composing a person’s name, such as Migjeni – an abbreviation from his original name (Millosh Gjergj Nikolla) a famous Albanian poet and writer – or ASDRENI (Aleksander Stavre Drenova), another famous Albanian poet.

Other such names which are used commonly in recent decades are GETOAR, composed from Gegeria + Tosks (representing the two main dialects of the Albanian language, Gegë and Toskë, based on the country’s two main regions Gegëria and Toskëria, and Arbanon — which is an alternative way used to describe all Albanian lands.

English[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English. Some UK government agencies such as Ofcom (Office of Communications) and the former Oftel (Office of Telecommunications) use this style.

New York City has various neighborhoods named by syllabic abbreviation, such as Tribeca (Triangle below Canal Street) and SoHo (South of Houston Street). This usage has spread into other American cities, giving SoMa, San Francisco (South of Market) and LoDo, Denver (Lower Downtown), amongst others.

Chicago-based electric service provider ComEd is a syllabic abbreviation of (Commonwealth) and (Thomas) Edison.

Sections of California are also often colloquially syllabically abbreviated, as in NorCal (Northern California), CenCal (Central California), and SoCal (Southern California). Additionally, in the context of Los Angeles, California, the Syllabic abbreviation SoHo (Southern Hollywood) refers to the southern portion of the Hollywood neighborhood.

Partially syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US Navy, as they increase readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence DESRON 6 is used (in the full capital form) to mean «Destroyer Squadron 6», while COMNAVAIRLANT would be «Commander, Naval Air Force (in the) Atlantic.»

Syllabic abbreviations are a prominent feature of Newspeak, the fictional language of George Orwell’s dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The political contractions of Newspeak—Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)—are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German (q.v.) and Russian contractions (q.v.) in the 20th century. Like Nazi (Nationalsozialismus) and Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), politburo (Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union), Comintern (Communist International), kolkhoz (collective farm), and Komsomol (Young Communists’ League), the contractions in Newspeak are supposed to have a political function by virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.^{[20]: 310–8}

A more recent syllabic abbreviation has emerged with the disease COVID-19 (COrona VIrus Disease 2019) caused by the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 virus (itself frequently abbreviated to SARS-CoV-2, partly an initialism).

German[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations were and are common in German; much like acronyms in English, they have a distinctly modern connotation, although contrary to popular belief, many date back to before 1933, if not the end of the Great War. Kriminalpolizei, literally criminal police but idiomatically the Criminal Investigation Department of any German police force, begat KriPo (variously capitalised), and likewise Schutzpolizei, the protection police or uniform department, begat SchuPo. Along the same lines, the Swiss Federal Railways’ Transit Police—the Transportpolizei—are abbreviated as the TraPo.

With the National Socialist German Workers’ Party gaining power came a frenzy of government reorganisation, and with it a series of entirely new syllabic abbreviations. The single national police force amalgamated from the Schutzpolizeien of the various states became the Ordnungspolizei or «order police»; the state KriPos together formed the Sicherheitspolizei or «security police»; and there was also the Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei) or «secret state police». The new order of the German Democratic Republic in the east brought about a conscious denazification, but also a repudiation of earlier turns of phrase in favour of neologisms such as Stasi for Staatssicherheit («state security», the secret police) and VoPo for Volkspolizei. The phrase politisches Büro, which may be rendered literally as office of politics or idiomatically as political party steering committee, became Politbüro.

Syllabic abbreviations are not only used in politics, however. Many business names, trademarks, and service marks from across Germany are created on the same pattern: for a few examples, there is Aldi, from Theo Albrecht, the name of its founder, followed by discount; Haribo, from Hans Riegel, the name of its founder, followed by Bonn, the town of its head office; and Adidas, from Adolf «Adi» Dassler, the nickname of its founder followed by his surname.

Russian[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations are very common in Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. They are often used as names of organizations. Historically, popularization of abbreviations was a way to simplify mass-education in 1920s (see Likbez).

Leninist organisations such as the Comintern (Communist International) and Komsomol (Kommunisticheskii Soyuz Molodyozhi, or «Communist youth union») used Russian language syllabic abbreviations. In the modern Russian language, words like Rosselkhozbank (from Rossiysky selskokhozyaystvenny bank — Russian Agricultural Bank, RusAg) and Minobrnauki (from Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki — Ministry of Education and Science) are still commonly used. In nearby Belarus, there are Beltelecom (Belarus Telecommunication) and Belsat (Belarus Satellite).

Spanish[edit]

Syllabic abbreviations are common in Spanish; examples abound in organization names such as Pemex for Petróleos Mexicanos («Mexican Petroleums») or Fonafifo for Fondo Nacional de Financimiento Forestal (National Forestry Financing Fund).

Malay and Indonesian[edit]

In Southeast Asian languages, especially in Malay languages, syllabic abbreviations are also common; examples include Petronas (for Petroliam Nasional, «National Petroleum»), its Indonesian equivalent Pertamina (from its original name Perusahaan Pertambangan Minyak dan Gas Bumi Negara, «State Oil and Natural Gas Mining Company»), and Kemenhub (from Kementerian Perhubungan, «Ministry of Transportation»)

Chinese and Japanese kanji[edit]

East Asian languages whose writing systems use Chinese characters form abbreviations similarly by using key Chinese characters from a term or phrase. For example, in Japanese the term for the United Nations, kokusai rengō (国際連合) is often abbreviated to kokuren (国連). (Such abbreviations are called ryakugo (略語) in Japanese; see also Japanese abbreviated and contracted words). The syllabic abbreviation of kanji words is frequently used for universities: for instance, Tōdai (東大) for Tōkyō daigaku (東京大学, University of Tokyo) and is used similarly in Chinese: Běidà (北大) for Běijīng Dàxué (北京大学, Peking University). The English phrase «Gung ho» originated as a Chinese abbreviation.

See also[edit]

• Abbreviation (music) – abbreviation in musical notation
• Clipping (morphology) – Reduction of a word to one of its parts
• Gramogram – Group of letters pronounced as if a word
• List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions
• List of abbreviations in photography
• Acronym – Word or name made from the initial components of the words of a sequence
  • List of acronyms
• List of business and finance abbreviations
• List of classical abbreviations
• List of medieval abbreviations
• Portmanteau – Word blending the sounds and combining the meanings of two others
  • List of portmanteaus
• Neologism – Newly coined term not accepted into mainstream language
• Numeronym – Number-based word
• RAS syndrome – Acronym redundantly coupled with its word(s)
• SMS language – Abbreviated slang used in text messaging
• Three-letter acronym – Abbreviation consisting of three letters
• The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster’s dictionary
• Unicode alias names and abbreviations – Names and aliases of Unicode characters

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Media related to Abbreviation at Wikimedia Commons
• Acronyms at Curlie