Need synonyms for become better? Here’s a list of similar words from our thesaurus that you can use instead.
Contexts
To recover or feel better
To make progress in development
Verb
▲
To recover or feel better
improve
recover
convalesce
heal
recuperate
rally
rehabilitate
move
be on the mend
be on the road to recovery
be on the up and up
be out of the woods
bounce back
build up your strength
come along
gain strength
get back on feet
get better
get over something
get well
look up
make a comeback
make headway
make progress
mend
perk up
pick up
pull out of it
pull through
regain health
regain strength
rehab
remedy
restore your form
revive
snap out of it
strengthen
take a turn for the better
take on a new lease of life
take steps forward
turn the corner
assuage
grow better
come back
snap back
recoup
ameliorate
pull round
gain
get back to normal
rejuvenate
renew
buck up
rebound
refresh
restore
turn a corner
invigorateUS
envigorateUK
get over
overcome
restore your health
come around
feel better
return to health
come round
advance
progress
develop
shape up
be all right
settle down
show improvement
return to form
make a recovery
feel yourself again
be cured
shake off
rest
regenerate
pep up
revivify
cure
survive
be take on a new lease of life
be given on a new lease of life
knit
become healthy
be restored
weather
come through
triumph
awaken
reform
set up
be on the path to recovery
draw together
be well
enliven
surge
get through
ride out
get well again
reflect
get back in shape
emerge from something
brace up
get your act together
come up smiling
come from behind
be given a new lease of life
get it together
turn things around
get second wind
turn around
grow stronger
wake up
be refreshed
recuperate quickly
pull around
renew one’s strength
brighten up
become livelier
take heart
be heartened
liven up
cheer up
come on
be on the up
respond to treatment
make it
get out of the woods
start anew
take turn for better
get in shape
forge ahead
sober up
get stronger
be out of woods
get out from under
awake
come to
recover consciousness
regain consciousness
come to life
come to one’s senses
resuscitate
animate
galvanizeUS
galvaniseUK
come alive
get going
forget
outlast
get back
return to normal
regroup
live down
revitalizeUS
resurrect
get some respite
reactivate
wake
revitaliseUK
quicken
spring up again
endure
recover from
get better after
recuperate from
mend from
get beyond
rise above
live through
pass though
come round from
shrug off
more ❯
Verb
▲
To make progress in development
advance
develop
improve
progress
evolve
ameliorate
augment
grow
enhance
hone
mature
strengthen
update
upgrade
boost
elevate
enrich
fine-tune
flourish
fortify
make headway
make progress
make strides
meliorate
moderniseUK
modernizeUS
optimiseUK
optimizeUS
perfect
prosper
refine
revolutioniseUK
revolutionizeUS
thrive
transform
beef up
better
build
cultivate
drive forward
expand
extend
further
get ahead
go places
move ahead
move forward
move forward in leaps and bounds
pull ahead
scale up
step up
come along
come on
forge ahead
pick up
level up
blossom
increase
gain ground
get better
go forward
bloom
boom
burgeon
rise
succeed
shine
bourgeon
take steps forward
work up
come of age
score
get on
move on
do well
be successful
cover ground
make inroads
push ahead
press on
make good
fare well
fly high
get places
spread your wings
build up
shape up
roll up
be getting there
grow up
proceed
continue
take the next step
straighten up
ripen
make first rate
turn over new leaf
keep going
push on
get going
go on
profit
arrive
flower
go well
mushroom
batten
yield
produce
wax
crack on
press forward
make it
go ahead
get on well
move onward
push forward
catch on
do wonders
develop well
grow vigorously
grow well
make good speed
grow rich
become rich
bear fruit
turn out well
be enriched
make a go
shoot up
go to town
get there
have legs
be vigorous
be strong
be well
benefit
be in good shape
go
raise
be in its heyday
get somewhere
be in good health
help
mend
rectify
right
correct
go great guns
go up in the world
be in your prime
be in the pink
hit it big
be on top of the heap
run riot
cure
fix
reform
settle
promote
redress
resolve
amend
remedy
square
repair
heal
tweak
make better
set right
patch up
sort out
clear up
put to rights
make improvements to
deal with
put right
polish
lift
do all right for oneself
cut it
be a success
make the grade
prevail
change
achieve success
make the big time
triumph
age
uplift
work on
touch up
take shape
season
crack it
gain
make your mark
find a place in the sun
move up
move
maturate
build on
culminate
achieve
climb
look up
strike gold
strike oil
reach adulthood
show improvement
get on in the world
get to the top
yield results
hit the jackpot
carry off
bring home the bacon
make a name for oneself
foster
alter
emerge
go up
improve on
spread
excel
propel
brush up
smarten
straighten out
reinforce
amplify
be in clover
work out
perk up
hit the target
be fine and dandy
skyrocket
heighten
intensify
multiply
climb the ladder
work one’s way
be promoted
convert
enlarge
take it to the next level
rally
arise
sharpen
smarten up
continue ahead
supplement
prime
consolidate
polish up on
make headway with
motor
reenforce
fast-track
accomplish
win
be on the up
reap benefits
change for the better
prepare
drive
metamorphose
adapt
turn the corner
make perfect
work
be victorious
rise in the world
revamp
appreciate
be on easy street
carry all before you
come out on top
set the Thames on fire
envigorateUK
achieve recognition
reach maturity
become adult
be fully grown
round out
take a turn for the better
be fully developed
reach the top
be full-grown
develop fully
set the world on fire
fill out
become famous
invigorateUS
complement
shift
give a boost
graduate
overtake
outdo
outmaneuverUS
surpass
germinate
magnify
aggrandize
diversify
get higher
soar
convalesce
show progress
happen
be fortunate
live the life of Riley
fix up
transcend
leave behind
outmanoeuvreUK
make ground
ascend
recuperate
come around
compound
show promise
rocket
spruce up
take to the next level
add value to
embellish
come about
luck out
hit pay dirt
mitigate
assuage
forward
remediate
turn out
unfold
dominate
gain recognition
break through
soup up
gain promotion
march
become successful
be somebody
distinguish oneself
reap the benefit
stand in good stead
strike it big
attain control
turn to one’s advantage
attain ascendancy
gain ascendancy
carry all before one
gain control
put to good use
make the most of
beat the game
beat the system
make good use of
elaborate on
temper
top up
tighten up
polish up
endow
illume
inflate
burnish
vitalize
stimulate
boost up
smooth
go far
star
better oneself
make one’s way
step forward
work one’s way up
be elevated
turn it up
step it up
milk
elaborate
push
unroll
be someone
gain advancement
make a name
move up in the world
advance oneself
achieve a great deal
climb the ladder of success
make one’s way in the world
do well for oneself
industrializeUS
technologize
civilizeUS
crank it up
stand out
figure
click
hack it
differentiate
transmogrify
head
shift up
make money
step up one’s game
recover
grow in popularity
become more popular
become more successful
mellow
perform
lead
shoot
truck
speed
educe
derive
increase one’s intensity
rise to the next level
take it to the limit
propel forward
take it up a notch
raise one’s game
kick it up a notch
elevate one’s game
boost one’s game
pick up the pace
pull it off
deliver the goods
hit the mark
cut the mustard
make the cut
feature
reap financial reward
be skilful
be brilliant
be excellent
be outstanding
get results
pan out
come off
come through
be effective
sparkle
glow
be take on a new lease of life
be on the road to recovery
be given on a new lease of life
make a comeback
turn a corner
be on the mend
bounce back
go forth
reign supreme
be proficient
be expert
be talented
be very good
be pre-eminent
be unparalleled
be unrivalled
do well out of
cash in on
make a killing
be good at
be good
be skilled at
be skilled
be without equal
stand out in a crowd
be unsurpassed
be the best
be second to none
wear the crown
come into your own
be unequalled
have a gift
have a gift for
be unexampled
steal the show
civiliseUK
industrialiseUK
open out
march on
adapt yourself
make capital out of
train
hasten
launch
bolster
treat
nourish
forge ahead with
bring forward
get with it
get ahead of
handle
manage
concoct
gain your end
see to
take care of
make ready
act on
nurture
sustain
feed
turn
maneuverUS
transition
adjust
administer
vary
act with
manoeuvreUK
attend to
recondition
effect
process
perform on
get better at
nutrify
work hard at
make strong
tone
nurse
make stronger
brush up on
devote oneself to
continually update
constantly improve
continuously update
constantly update
provide for
poise
give strength to
nerve
ready
make healthy
tone up
more ❯
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See Also
What is the opposite of become better?
What is the past tense of become better?
Use our Synonym Finder
Nearby Words
become bigger
become black
become bleached
become bloated
become blocked
become blurred
become bent
become beached
become aware of the fact that
become aware of
become aware
become awake to
Find Synonyms
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Loyal, patient, moody, creative
Aggressive, respected, trusting, dedicated
Caring, loyal, supportive, dishonest
Selfish, jealous, mean, patient
Trusting, creative, mean, supportive
Selfish, jealous, dedicated, moody
It is inevitable that words change their meanings over time but it is still interesting to know the English words the meanings of which became very different from what they mean originally.
You might be surprised to know that the words you’ll find here are mostly words that you use regularly. It is a regular occurrence and the change of meaning could be narrowed or broadened. An example of this is the word ”hound.” Previously, a canine is traditionally called hound, while dog is used to indicate a canine that is fierce and big. The term ”dog” became the common term, which is broadening its meaning. The meaning of ”hound” became narrow as it now only refers to hunting dogs. Dogs of smaller breeds, especially, including Chihuahuas and toy dogs should never be called hounds.
Some of the narrowing and broadening of the meaning of words happened randomly. The question whether someone drinks refers to imbibing alcoholic drinks rather than all liquids. Previously, enjoying music means enjoying classical music, nothing else. When you say you enjoy reading today, it more or less means that the person is reading fiction instead of books on various subjects including history, science, nature and the like.
Intuitive and transformative shift
The changing of the meaning of words follows a mild transformative and intuitive direction. In the old days ”meat” referred to all items related to food, which is why ”candy” is called sweetmeat. Now meat solely pertain to flesh, which, while narrowed stayed within the sphere of food.
Some of the shift was lateral. Bird for example used to refer to a baby animal before it became the overall term for flying animals, which used to be called ”fugol.” The latter narrowed and changed to ”fowl” and now refers to birds raised in farms such as hens, geese, ducks and turkeys.
Distant shifts
The meanings of many English words today are very far from the original because of implications.
Audition
One of them is the word ”audition” that seems to have the root word that refers to ”audio.” Today, when you hear the term, what easily comes to mind is a person trying out for a film or play.
However, when ”audition” first came to be used, the word was used by doctors to mean that a patient’s hearing would be better once the ears are cleared of whatever is blocking the sound.
In 19th century England, the term for tryouts became ”hearings” because at that time trying out for plays means listening to a person reciting something, which writers turned into something fancier by using the word ”audition.”
The word stuck and used primarily to mean trying out for a performance while hearing became the term that refers to sound perception.
Commodity
Commodity now refers to staple products the quantity of which remains constant regardless of producers. The term is commonly used when referring to futures contracts that ensure uniformity in price even when the market fluctuates.
When the word was first used, it referred to comfort, for example, in accommodation, meaning indulging in personal comforts, such as enjoying the pleasure of staying in bed or spreading your body on a cozy sofa.
The current meaning is very distant for the original intent – from feeling comfortable to being products in the futures market, which is about financial contracts.
Fine
The word ”fine” came from the French word, ”fin” or end. Today, it has evolved to mean something that is ”the best,” ”the ultimate” or ”the top of the line.” Thus, initially fine, means either something of high quality or the end. The high quality meaning is what made it into the English language, which became associated with something delicate. It implies top quality as the item was produced with high precision.
However, there are other used for the word fine. When someone is asked how they are doing, the standard reply is he/she is fine. In this context, the word fine implies that the person is not hurt, is feeling great or in good health. The meaning extends to other things, such as the payment for a minor violation.
When you watch a French film, you are still likely see the word ”fin” at the end before the credits. But outside France, fine means something else.
Minority
The original meaning of the word ”minority” was a ”small portion” of something, which means that it was a technical term. However, today the word is generally used as a demographic term. When you say minority, the implication is that you refer to people of color. In the minds of many Americans, minority refers to Latino and Black people. So even if the Whites were outnumbered by Latinos or Blacks, they would never be referred to as minority because they do not have dark complexions.
Merry
Merry is a word the original meaning of which is very different from how it is used today. In the past, ”merry” meant ”short.” It is because something short or brief is pleasant. Now merry means joy, gaiety, full of merriment, fun, lively and so on. The English language already had a word ”short” in the early days, however, it meant ”sliced off.”
Merry had a long past as well. It started from the steppes in Ukraine where most of the languages in Europe originated. Merry came from the word ”mregh” that became ”brakhion” in Greece. It was a term used for the upper arm, as physically, the lower arm is longer than the upper arm. Brakhion entered the Latin language as ‘brakh” but ended as a pastry term, as in brachitella or bread that resembles folded arms. Old German adopted the term as brezitella that morphed into brezel in Middle High German, which is now known as pretzel.
In the French language, brach referred to shoulder straps that extended to mean the chemise worn by children. Brach evolved into brassiere which was shortened to ”bra.”
In a sense, pretzel and bra are the same as merry, although the evolution that happened gradually means that it would be impossible today to use the three words in a sentence that would make sense.
Awful and awesome
Both words came from ”awe,” which is an Old English word that originally meant dread, terror or fear. When used to refer to God, it meant respectful or reverential fear. Awesome and awful used to be synonyms, but in the 19th century however, awful became a term that is synonymous to the emotion’s negative aspect thus it usually refers to something very bad or something frightful. Awesome on the other hand became the term used to mean mind-boggling, stunning or marvelous, which were cited initially in a 1980 publication called Official Preppy Handbook.
Old dictionary with page open, showing side tabs
Opposite meaning
The meaning of words will continue to change as long as there are speakers of the language. Some of the meanings shift to become the opposite of the original while some become complimentary or otherwise.
Nice
From the Anglo-Norman language to classical Latin to English, the word ”nice” used to refer to someone ”ignorant” from the Latin word ”nescius.” Starting from the 1300s up to the 1600s the meaning was the same – ignorant, foolish or silly. But during the same period, nice took on different meanings, from being dissolute, wanton, cowardly, effeminate, lazy, intricate, sluggish, refined to elegant.
In the 16th century the meanings changed to sharp, attentive, meticulous. When the 18th century arrived, the meanings lost much of its prestige; it gained the meaning we use today, such as pleasant or agreeable.
Dinner
Dinner started from the French word ”disner” that originated from the Latin term, ”disjejunare” or breaking the fast. Thus it originally referred to the first meal you have for the day. Through the evolution of the word, it was used to refer to the day’s main meal, which is still used in some circles. For the fashionable and professional classes today, as mentioned in the Oxford English Dictionary, dinner now refers to the largest meal taken in the evening. The last meal served during the day is called supper, which is seldom used today. The current meaning is a light meal in the early evening if you had dinner in the middle of the day. You could also have supper before you go to bed.
Naughty
Naughty people in the 1300s were those who had naught or nothing. It meant they were either needy or poor. A millennium later, the meaning shifted to someone morally wicked or bad or someone who was worth nothing. So the meaning changed from having nothing to someone sexually provocative, promiscuous or licentious. But in the late 17th century other meanings were added to naughty. These are gentler terms, often used to refer to children who display misbehavior, disobedience or mischievousness.
Several more English words have changed meanings. Silly for example used to mean blessed or worthy before the meanings became vulnerable or weak. Today, it is mainly used to refer to someone foolish. Some are more difficult to comprehend, such as clue coming from the word ”clew” meaning a ball of yarn to being important pieces of evidence. Fathom used to mean, ”to encircle with your arm” whereas today it means understanding something after spending time to think about it.
It does not matter if the meanings of many English words continue to change. The human translators of Day Translations, Inc. will always use the most applicable words to accurately translate your documents. They are all native speakers and located around the world to serve your translation requirements quickly and efficiently. We serve clients 24/7, 365 days a year. So contact us for translation services anytime by calling us at 1-800-969-6853 or sending us an email at Contact us.
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Пословицы и поговорки – это отражение народной мысли, установок, моральных ценностей. Обычно они имеют аналоги в других языках, поскольку воспроизводят “простые истины”, свойственные любому человеку каждой нации. Пословица может иметь другие образы, но будет доносить тот же смысл:
| Английские пословицы | Русские эквиваленты английских пословиц |
| When in Rome, do as the Romans do. | В чужой монастырь со своим уставом не ходят. |
| The early bird catches the worm. | Кто рано встаёт – тому Бог подает. |
| Too many cooks spoil the broth. | У семи нянек дитя без глазу. |
⠀
Но есть высказывания, которые вообще не имеют эквивалента в русском языке. Такие пословицы в наибольшей степени отражают отличия менталитета, поэтому составляют для нас особый интерес.
Кстати, сегодня мы узнаем не только смысл этих английских пословиц, но и связанные с ними занимательные истории.
Обрати внимание: если вдруг ты не согласен с описанным примером и точно знаешь русский аналог, то обязательно пиши об этом в комментариях – подискутируем! 🙂
Уникальное наследие: пословицы на английском языке с переводом
1. If you can’t be good, be careful.
Дословный перевод: Если не можешь быть хорошим, будь осторожен.
Если ты собираешься делать безнравственные вещи, убедись, что они не опасны для тебя или общества. Когда ты планируешь сделать что-то аморальное, удостоверься, что об этом никто не узнает.
Первое упоминание именно этой формулировки датируется 1903-м годом, но смысл выражения намного старше и берет свое начало из латинской пословицы “Si non caste, tamen caute” (если не целомудренно, то по крайней мере осторожно).
2. A volunteer is worth twenty pressed men.
Дословный перевод: Один доброволец стоит двадцати принужденных.
Значение пословицы по сути прямое: даже маленькая группа людей может быть полезнее, если у нее есть энтузиазм, стремление и т.д. Зародилась эта пословица в начале 18-го века.
В то время Королевский флот имел группу матросов, вооруженных дубинками, чья цель была “насобирать” моряков на флот. Они могли делать это, рассказывая о небывалых преимуществах службы, или же просто силой (все же вооружены дубинками они были неспроста).
Такое стечение обстоятельств не делало принужденного хорошим моряком. Отсюда и “вытекло” это умозаключение.
Заметь, что в этой пословице можно менять соотношение цифр:
100 volunteers are worth 200 press’d men.
One volunteer is worth two pressed men
и т.д.
3. Suffering for a friend doubleth friendship.
Дословный перевод: Страдание за друга удваивает дружбу.
Значение этой шотландской пословицы понятно без особых объяснений. Казалось бы, в русском языке есть довольно похожая пословица “друг познается в беде”. При этом очень интересен сам смысл “страдания за друга”. Если в русском варианте говорится о том, чтобы не отвернуться от друга и помочь ему в трудной ситуации, то здесь именно страдать вместе с ним, тем самым усиливая дружбу.
Еще одна интересная с точки зрения образов английская пословица о дружбе: Friends are made in wine and proven in tears (дружба рождается в вине, а проверяется в слезах).
Также читайте: Какой он — живой английский язык?
4. A woman’s work is never done.
Дословный перевод: Женский труд никогда не заканчивается.
Ну вот и о нашей нелегкой женской доле английские пословицы позаботились 🙂 Выражение пошло от старинного двустишия:
Man may work from sun to sun,
But woman’s work is never done.
Получается, значение пословицы в том, что женские дела (в отличие от мужских) длятся бесконечно. Видно это из примера:
“A woman’s work is never done!”, said Leila. She added: “As soon as I finish washing the breakfast dishes, it’s time to start preparing lunch. Then I have to go shopping and when the kids are back home I have to help them with their homework.”
(“Женский труд никогда не заканчивается!”, – Сказала Лейла. Она добавила: “Как только я заканчиваю мыть посуду после завтрака, приходит время готовить обед. Потом я должна идти по магазинам и, когда дети возвращаются домой, я должна помогать им с домашним заданием”.)
5. Comparisons are odious / odorous.
Дословный перевод: Сравнения отвратительны / воняют.
Люди должны оцениваться по их собственным заслугам, не стоит кого-либо или что-либо сравнивать между собой.
Два варианта пословица имеет не просто так. Первый вариант (Comparisons are odious) очень древний, и впервые он был запечатлен еще в 1440 году. А вот измененный вариант (Comparisons are odorous) был “создан” Шекспиром и использован им в пьесе “Много шума из ничего”.
6. Money talks.
Дословный перевод: Деньги говорят (сами за себя).
Значение – деньги решают все. Происхождение выражения является предметом споров среди лингвистов. Одни считают, что пословица зародилась в Америке 19-го века, другие – что в средневековой Англии.
Кстати, пословица использована в названии песни австралийской рок-группы AC/DC.
7. Don’t keep a dog and bark yourself.
Дословный перевод: Не держи собаку, если лаешь сам.
Значение этой английском пословицы: не работай за своего подчиненного. Высказывание очень древнее: первое упоминание зафиксировано еще в 1583 году.
По поводу отсутствия аналога: в разных источниках дана разная информация. Кто-то согласен с тем, что аналогов в русском языке нет, другие в качестве эквивалента предлагают пословицу:
За то собаку кормят, что она лает.
Однако, в Большом словаре русских пословиц такой пословицы о собаке нет вообще. Возможно, то что предлагают нам в качестве альтернативы, это адаптированный перевод именно английской пословицы (такое бывает).
8. Every man has his price.
Дословный перевод: У каждого есть своя цена.
Согласно этой пословице, подкупить можно любого, главное предложить достаточную цену. Наблюдение впервые зафиксировано в 1734 году, но, скорее всего, имеет и более давнюю историю.
Также читайте: История Англии: список лучших документальных фильмов
9. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
Дословный перевод: Подражание – самая искренняя форма лести.
Значение пословицы прямое. Эта формулировка восходит к началу 19-го века. Но сама мысль еще древнее и встречалась в текстах 18-го века, например, в 1714 году у журналиста Юстаса Баджелла:
Imitation is a kind of artless Flattery (Имитация является своего рода бесхитростной лестью).
10. It’s better to light a candle than curse the darkness.
Дословный перевод: Лучше зажечь свечу, чем проклинать темноту.
Вопрос об аналоге снова спорен: в некоторых источниках, где даны английские пословицы с переводом на русский, эквивалентом называют:
Лучше пойти и плюнуть, чем плюнуть и не пойти.
Хочу с этим поспорить. Значение русской пословицы: лучше сделать, чем жалеть, что не сделал. Смысл английской – лучше исправить положение, чем жаловаться на него. Лично мне смысловая составляющая про жалобы кажется первостепенной, поэтому приравнивать эти пословицы я бы не стала.
11. Stupid is as stupid does
Дословный перевод: Глуп тот, кто глупо поступает.
На самом деле это не совсем “народная пословица”, а фраза, которой Форест Гамп отбивался от назойливых вопросов о своем интеллекте:
Фраза ушла в народ 🙂 Прародитель этого выражения – пословица “Handsome is as handsome does” (красив тот, кто красиво поступает), уже имеющая аналог в русском языке: “Не тот хорош, кто лицом пригож, а тот хорош, кто для дела гож”.
Также читайте: Игра престолов с Lingualeo, или Hear me roar
12. You can’t make bricks without straw
Дословный перевод: Нельзя сделать кирпич без соломы.
Опять же в некоторых источниках в качестве аналога указывается русское “без труда не вытащишь и рыбку из пруда”. При этом английская пословица говорит не о трудолюбии, а о невозможности выполнить задачу без необходимых материалов.
“It’s no good trying to build a website if you don’t know any html, you can’t make bricks without straw.” (Не пытайся создать веб-сайт, если ты не знаешь HTML: ты не можешь делать кирпичи без соломы).
Согласно википедии выражение берет начало из библейского сюжета, когда Фараон в наказание запрещает давать израильтянам солому, но приказывает делать то же количество кирпичей, как и раньше.
Где искать пословицы и поговорки на английском языке по темам?
Возможно, это не все высказывания, не имеющие русских аналогов, ведь английских пословиц (и их значений) огромное множество. Кстати, ты вполне можешь поискать их самостоятельно в нашей Библиотеке материалов по запросу “proverb”, чтобы насытить свою английскую речь чудесными выражениями. Успехов! 🙂
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is a process contrary to specializaton, in such cases the meaning of a word becomes more general in the course of time. The transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is most frequent, e.g. «ready» (a derivative from the verb «ridan» — «ride») meant «prepared for a ride», now its meaning is «prepared for anything». «Journey» was borrowed from French with the meaning «one day trip», now it means «a trip of any duration».
is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. Ex. a) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object , e.g. a glass, boards, iron etc; b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House — members of Parliament, Fleet Street — bourgeois press, the White House — the Administration of the USA etc;
I need it to use it in a speech as a metaphor for synergy or the ability to actually be stronger when using the capabilities of both sides.
asked Aug 3, 2013 at 15:53
5
This is exactly the concept of
synergy, and it brings to mind the famous related quotation
«The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.»
By the way, this quote is often attributed to Aristotle’s Metaphysics. However, there is a claim that «there is no place in Metaphysics where the phrase or anything similar can be found!».
Likewise, others attribute the quote to the Gestalt school of psychology — although this too is an error, arising from a mistranslation.
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 23:11
Consider alloy
a metal made by combining two or more metallic elements, especially to give greater strength or resistance to corrosion:
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 15:57
bibbib
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9
After having found the following title in The Washington Post, «Marriage Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts» by William Raspberry, I think that «marriage», in a metaphorical sense, can be the word you are looking for.
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 20:43
You could also try one of
The compound effect of A and B …
or
The synergistic effect of A and B …
or
The combined effect of A and B …
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 16:31
terdonterdon
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How about «gestalt»? Means pretty much the same as «synergy» (the whole is greater than the sum of its parts) but less likely to have your colleagues ticking jargon bingo boxes.
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 22:56
0
Perhaps the word you are looking for is potentiate:-
- to cause to be potent; make powerful.
- to increase the effectiveness of; intensify.
This word is sometimes used in the biochemistry trade to cover the situation where two chemicals or reagents are only moderately dangerous to humans of themselves, but in combination are very dangerous indeed. I’m told this is the case with Malathion and Parathion. Each of them is known to be toxic, but in combination they are much more dangerous than either of them would be separately; each of them potentiates the other.
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 16:02
Brian HooperBrian Hooper
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The words you are looking for are alloy and steel. Steel is a much nicer word because of the term ‘as strong as steel’.
Example:
«Together, the Medic and Soldier were as strong as steel.»
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 18:57
FatimaFatima
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Fusion comes to mind:
a merging of diverse, distinct, or separate elements into a unified whole
Amalgam as in amalgamating also comes to mind:
to unite in or as if in an amalgam; especially: to merge into a single body
As does the Italian word fasci (from the Latin fasces):
During the 19th century, the bundle of rods, in Latin called fasces and in Italian fascio, came to symbolize strength through unity
Though it has that unfortunate connotation of fascism.
And, from the French, melange:
a mixture often of incongruous elements
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 19:32
ThomasThomas
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You might consider catalysis (kuh tal’ uh sis). A simple definition could lay the groundwork:
an action between two or more persons or forces, initiated by an agent that itself remains unaffected by the action
You can then explain briefly what a catalytic agent is and suggest that the initial decision to combine the capabilities of both sides can serve as a catalyst in making the synergy stronger. What does a catalyst do? It is something that causes activity between two or more persons or forces without itself being affected.
The decision to use synergy as a mode of action does not change the mode; it serves, however, as a catalyst to double the strength of the synergy. The end product of the synergy is catalyzed by the decision, not vice versa.
Play with it! Adapt it!
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 16:23
rhetoricianrhetorician
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Updated: If you are looking for a pithy phrase to describe the benefits of joining two sides.
Unity is strength
————————————————————————————-
These are to be taken as suggestions. As I had to look them up, I am still not very clear on their meanings; I do not pretend they are the answers which the OP is seeking. However, they might be useful in helping him make the final choice.
Superagonist
a superagonist is a type of agonist that is capable of producing a
maximal response greater than the endogenous agonist for the target
receptor, and thus has an efficacy of more than 100%.[1][2] For
example goserelin is a superagonist of the gonadotropin-releasing
hormone receptor.
This word provides further evidence that Brian Hooper’s answer, potentiate, is perhaps the correct one.
Potentiator
In clinical pharmacology, a potentiator is a drug, herb, or chemical
that intensifies the effects of a given drug, such as hydroxyzine used
to get more pain relief and anxiolysis out of an equal dose of an
opioid medication. The potentiation can take place at any part of the
liberation, absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination of
the drug.
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 18:33
Mari-Lou AMari-Lou A
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In animal and plant breeding, this is hybrid vigour (heterosis), which you can extend metaphorically to other cases.
answered Aug 4, 2013 at 15:42
HenryHenry
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«Metamorphosis», though not necessarily describing a combined effect of various sources, but solely a transformation, and not stating the effects to be positive, negative, or even adhereing to a special entity such as force, could be used to describe a «synergy» …
The fusion of such and such trigger a metamorphosis that creates an entity richer in force as any of it’s original contributors on their own…
Also, I don’t know the context, but if you’re talking physically, check «metabolic effect» …
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 19:54
How about symbiosis? Can give reference, just by interpreting the conditions.
catalysis also sounds matching.
It’s just both rather Latin.
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 22:07
1
WHAT ABOU A QUOTE?!
The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC)
@Rick9: For a speech, I would recommend a good quote, by a popular man/woman. You are lucky!!! Aristotle should be famous enough.
I need it to use it in a speech as a metaphor for synergy or the ability to actually be stronger when using the capabilities of both sides.<
In your speech, you could use it like this:
What you want to say and then:
Aristotle, (the great greek philosopher), whose name means «the best purpose», summed it
up in a simple formula: The whole is more (alternative: equals more) than the sum of its parts.
-Applause-
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 21:59
Don DioDon Dio
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How about Synergy? (overused in business jargon)
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 22:56
boomhauerboomhauer
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The majority of answerers are not reading the question. Hopefully the following point of interest maybe useful when researching your speech regarding using a metaphor for synergy.
My old dictionary from last millenium (1980’s heh heh) does not list «synergy».
It does show «synecdoche» with the definition as «figure of speech by which whole of thing is put for part or part for whole. eg sail for ship»
Am no linguist but i wonder what the source/root of «synergy» is?.
It would appear «synergy» itself is a metaphor!?
Other words/definitions which have not been listed yet-
- compelling- which may indicate there are other forces other than what
is observed -
coersive — as in coersive bond (chem)
Another tangent could be the meaning of «threefold cord» being stronger than a two or one fold cord in the Bible. (Ec 4:12) It may take much research to get the meaning- try Watch Tower Library; but the gist is using the same elements to create a far superior strength and symbiotic relationship.
answered Aug 3, 2013 at 23:44
1
You are looking for the equivalent of «the whole is greater than the sum of the parts», often referred to as synergy and Gestalt theory.
answered Aug 4, 2013 at 6:08
moonstarmoonstar
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Simply say:
«When these two … combine, the resulting whole is stronger than the
parts»
You would be perfectly clear, you would not open yourself to the accusation of using jargon (synergy) or psychobabble (gestalt), you would not reveal an ignorance of metallurgy (alloy), you would not sound like a foodie (fusion, melange) and you would cause no distress to one whose spouse had very recently left (marriage).
answered May 14, 2016 at 10:30
frankfrank
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Chapter 8 how words develop new meanings
It has been mentioned that the systems of meanings of polysemantic words evolve gradually. The older a word is, the better developed is its semantic structure. The normal pattern of a word’s semantic development is from monosemy to a simple semantic structure encompassing only two or three meanings, with a further movement to an increasingly more complex semantic structure.
In this chapter we shall have a closer look at the complicated processes by which words acquire new meanings.
There are two aspects to this problem, which can be generally described in the following way: a) Why should new meanings appear at all? What circumstances cause and stimulate their development? b) How does it happen? What is the nature of the very process of development of new meanings?
Let us deal with each of these questions in turn.
Causes of Development of New Meanings
The first group of causes is traditionally termed historical or extra-linguistic.
Different kinds of changes in a nation’s social life, in its culture, knowledge, technology, arts lead to gaps appearing in the vocabulary which beg to be filled. Newly created objects, new concepts and phenomena must be named. We already know of two ways for providing new names for newly created concepts:
making new words (word-building) and borrowing foreign ones. One more way of filling such vocabulary gaps is by applying some old word to a new object or notion.
When the first textile factories appeared in England, the old word mill was applied to these early industrial enterprises. In this way, mill (a Latin borrowing of the first century В. С.) added a new meaning to its former meaning «a building in which corn is ground into flour». The new meaning was «textile factory».
A similar case is the word carriage which had (and still has) the meaning «a vehicle drawn by horses», but, with the first appearance of railways in England, it received a new meaning, that of «a railway car».
The history of English nouns describing different parts of a theatre may also serve as a good illustration of how well-established words can be used to denote newly-created objects and phenomena. The words stalls, box, pit, circle had existed for a long time before the first theatres appeared in England. With their appearance, the gaps in the vocabulary were easily filled by these widely used words which, as a result, developed new meanings.1
New meanings can also be developed due to linguistic factors (the second group of causes).
Linguistically speaking, the development of new meanings, and also a complete change of meaning, may be caused through the influence of other words, mostly of synonyms.1
Let us consider the following examples.
The Old English verb steorfan meant «to perish». When the verb to die was borrowed from the Scandinavian, these two synonyms, which were very close in their meaning, collided, and, as a result, to starve gradually changed into its present meaning: «to die (or suffer) from hunger».
The history of the noun deer is essentially the same. In Old English (O. E. deor) it had a general meaning denoting any beast. In that meaning it collided with the borrowed word animal and changed its meaning to the modern one («a certain kind of beast», R. олень).
The noun knave (O. E. knafa) suffered an even more striking change of meaning as a result of collision with its synonym boy. Now it has a pronounced negative evaluative connotation and means «swindler, scoundrel».
The Process of Development and Change of Meaning
The second question we must answer in this chapter is how new meanings develop. To find the answer to this question we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process, or at least its essential features. Let us examine the examples given above from a new angle, from within, so to speak.
Why was it that the word mill — and not some other word — was selected to denote the first textile factories? There must have been some connection between the former sense of mill and the new phenomenon to which it was applied. And there was apparently such a connection. Mills which produced flour, were mainly driven by water. The textile factories also firstly used water power. So, in general terms, the meanings of mill, both the old and the new one, could be defined as «an establishment using water power to produce certain goods». Thus, the first textile factories were easily associated with mills producing flour, and the new meaning of mill appeared due to this association. In actual fact, all cases of development or change of meaning are based on some association. In the history of the word carriage, the new travelling conveyance was also naturally associated in people’s minds with the old one: horse-drawn vehicle > part of a railway train. Both these objects were related to the idea of travelling. The job of both, the horse-drawn carriage and the railway carriage, is the same: to carry passengers on a journey. So the association was logically well-founded.
Stalls and box formed their meanings in which they denoted parts of the theatre on the basis of a different type of association. The meaning of the word box «a small separate enclosure forming a part of the theatre» developed on the basis of its former meaning «a rectangular container used for packing or storing things». The two objects became associated in the speakers’ minds because boxes in the earliest English theatres really resembled packing cases. They were enclosed on all sides and heavily curtained even on the side facing the audience so as to conceal the privileged spectators occupying them from curious or insolent stares.
The association on which the theatrical meaning of stalls was based is even more curious. The original meaning was «compartments in stables or sheds for the accommodation of animals (e. g. cows, horses, etc.)», There does not seem to be much in common between the privileged and expensive part of a theatre and stables intended for cows and horses, unless we take into consideration the fact that theatres in olden times greatly differed from what they are now. What is now known as the stalls was, at that time, standing space divided by barriers into sections so as to prevent the enthusiastic crowd from knocking one other down and hurting themselves. So, there must have been a certain outward resemblance between theatre stalls and cattle stalls. It is also possible that the word was first used humorously or satirically in this new sense.
The process of development of a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is traditionally termed transference.
Some scholars mistakenly use the term «transference of meaning» which is a serious mistake. It is very important to note that in any case of semantic change it is not the meaning but the word that is being transferred from one referent onto another (e. g. from a horse-drawn vehicle onto a railway car). The result of such a transference is the appearance of a new meaning.
Two types of transference are distinguishable depending on the two types of logical associations underlying the semantic process.
Transference Based on Resemblance (Similarity)
This type of transference is also referred to as linguistic metaphor. A new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their outward similarity. Box and stall, as should be clear from the explanations above, are examples of this type of transference.
Other examples can be given in which transference is also based on the association of two physical objects. The noun eye, for instance, has for one of its meanings «hole in the end of a needle» (cf. with the R. ушко иголки), which also developed through transference based on resemblance. A similar case is represented by the neck of a bottle.
The noun drop (mostly in the plural form) has, in addition to its main meaning «a small particle of water or other liquid», the meanings: «ear-rings shaped as drops of water» (e. g. diamond drops) and «candy of the same shape» (e. g. mint drops). It is quite obvious that both these meanings are also based on resemblance. In the compound word snowdrop the meaning of the second constituent underwent the same shift of meaning (also, in bluebell). In general, metaphorical change of meaning is often observed in idiomatic compounds.
The main meaning of the noun branch is «limb or subdivision of a tree or bush». On the basis of this meaning it developed several more. One of them is «a special field of science or art» (as in a branch of linguistics). This meaning brings us into the sphere of the abstract, and shows that in transference based on resemblance an association may be built not only between two physical objects, but also between a concrete object and an abstract concept.
The noun bar from the original meaning barrier developed a figurative meaning realized in such contexts as social bars, colour bar, racial bar. Here, again, as in the abstract meaning of branch, a concrete object is associated with an abstract concept.
The noun star on the basis of the meaning «heavenly body» developed the meaning «famous actor or actress». Nowadays the meaning has considerably widened its range, and the word is applied not only to screen idols (as it was at first), but, also, to popular sportsmen (e. g. football stars), pop-singers, etc. Of course, the first use of the word star to denote a popular actor must have been humorous or ironical: the mental picture created by the use of the word in this new meaning was a kind of semi-god surrounded by the bright rays of his glory. Yet, very soon the ironical colouring was lost, and, furthermore the association with the original meaning considerably weakened and is gradually erased.
The meanings formed through this type of transference are frequently found in the informal strata of the vocabulary, especially in slang (see Ch. 1). A red-headed boy is almost certain to be nicknamed carrot or ginger by his schoolmates, and the one who is given to spying and sneaking gets the derogatory nickname of rat. Both these meanings are metaphorical, though, of course, the children using them are quite unconscious of this fact.
The slang meanings of words such as nut, onion (= head), saucers (= eyes), hoofs (= feet) and very many others were all formed by transference based on resemblance.
Transference Based on Contiguity
Another term for this type of transference is linguistic metonymy. The association is based upon subtle psychological links between different objects and phenomena, sometimes traced and identified with much difficulty. The two objects may be associated together because they often appear in common situations, and so the image of one is easily accompanied by the image of the other; or they may be associated on the principle of cause and effect, of common function, of some material and an object which is made of it, etc.
Let us consider some cases of transference based on contiguity. You will notice that they are of different kinds.
The Old English adjective glad meant «bright, shining» (it was applied to the sun, to gold and precious stones, to shining armour, etc.). The later (and more modern) meaning «joyful» developed on the basis of the usual association (which is reflected in most languages) of light with joy (cf. with the R. светлое настроение; светло на душе).
The meaning of the adjective sad in Old English was «satisfied with food» (cf. with the R. сыт(ый) which is a word of the same Indo-European root). Later this meaning developed a connotation of a greater intensity of quality and came to mean «oversatisfied with food; having eaten too much». Thus, the meaning of the adjective sad developed a negative evaluative connotation and now described not a happy state of satisfaction but, on the contrary, the physical unease and discomfort of a person who has had too much to eat. The next shift of meaning was to transform the description of physical discomfort into one of spiritual discontent because these two states often go together. It was from this prosaic source that the modern meaning of sad «melancholy», «sorrowful» developed, and the adjective describes now a purely emotional state. The two previous meanings («satisfied with food» and «having eaten too much») were ousted from the semantic structure of the word long ago.
The foot of a bed is the place where the feet rest when one lies in the bed, but the foot of a mountain got its name by another association: the foot of a mountain is its lowest part, so that the association here is founded on common position.
By the arms of an arm-chair we mean the place where the arms lie when one is sitting in the chair, so that the type of association here is the same as in the foot of a bed. The leg of a bed (table, chair, etc.), though, is the part which serves as a support, the original meaning being «the leg of a man or animal». The association that lies behind this development of meaning is the common function: a piece of furniture is supported by its legs just as living beings are supported by theirs.
The meaning of the noun hand realized in the context hand of a clock (watch) originates from the main meaning of this noun «part of human body». It also developed due to the association of the common function:
the hand of a clock points to the figures on the face of the clock, and one of the functions of human hand is also that of pointing to things.
Another meaning of hand realized in such contexts as factory hands, farm hands is based on another kind of association: strong, skilful hands are the most important feature that is required of a person engaged in physical labour (cf. with the R. рабочие руки).
The adjective dull (see the scheme of its semantic structure in Ch. 7) developed its meaning «not clear or bright» (as in a dull green colour; dull light; dull shapes) on the basis of the former meaning «deficient in eyesight», and its meaning «not loud or distinct» (as in dull sounds) on the basis of the older meaning «deficient in hearing». The association here was obviously that of cause and effect: to a person with weak eyesight all colours appear pale, and all shapes blurred; to a person with deficient hearing all sounds are indistinct.
The main (and oldest registered) meaning of the noun board was «a flat and thin piece of wood; a wooden plank». On the basis of this meaning developed the meaning «table» which is now archaic. The association which underlay this semantic shift was that of the material and the object made from it: a wooden plank (or several planks) is an essential part of any table. This type of association is often found with nouns denoting clothes: e. g. a taffeta («dress made of taffeta»); a mink («mink coat»), a jersy («knitted shirt or sweater»).
Meanings produced through transference based on contiguity sometimes originate from geographical or proper names. China in the sense of «dishes made of porcelain» originated from the name of the country which was believed to be the birthplace of porcelain.
Tweed («a coarse wool cloth») got its name from the river Tweed and cheviot (another kind of wool cloth) from the Cheviot hills in England.
The name of a painter is frequently transferred onto one of his pictures: a Matisse = a painting by Matisse.1
Broadening (or Generalization) of Meaning.
Narrowing (or Specialization) of Meaning
Sometimes, the process of transference may result in a considerable change in range of meaning. For instance, the verb to arrive (French borrowing) began its life in English in the narrow meaning «to come to shore, to land». In Modern English it has greatly widened its combinability and developed the general meaning «to come» (e. g. to arrive in a village, town, city, country, at a hotel, hostel, college, theatre, place, etc.). The meaning developed through transference based on contiguity (the concept of coming somewhere is the same for both meanings), but the range of the second meaning is much broader.
Another example of the broadening of meaning is pipe. Its earliest recorded meaning was «a musical wind instrument». Nowadays it can denote any hollow oblong cylindrical body (e. g. water pipes). This meaning developed through transference based on the similarity of shape (pipe as a musical instrument is also a hollow oblong cylindrical object) which finally led to a considerable broadening of the range of meaning.
The word bird changed its meaning from «the young of a bird» to its modern meaning through transference based on contiguity (the association is obvious). The second meaning is broader and more general.
It is interesting to trace the history of the word girl as an example of the changes in the range of meaning in the course of the semantic development of a word.
In Middle English it had the meaning of «a small child of either sex». Then the word underwent the process of transference based on contiguity and developed the meaning of «a small child of the female sex», so that the range of meaning was somewhat narrowed. In its further semantic development the word gradually broadened its range of meaning. At first it came to denote not only a female child but, also, a young unmarried woman, later, any young woman, and in modern colloquial English it is practically synonymous to the noun woman (e. g. The old girl must be at least seventy), so that its range of meaning is quite broad.
The history of the noun lady somewhat resembles that of girl. In Old English the word (hlxfdiZq)denoted the mistress of the house, i. e. any married woman. Later, a new meaning developed which was much narrower in range: «the wife or daughter of a baronet» (aristocratic title). In Modern English the word lady can be applied to any woman, so that its range of meaning is even broader than that of the O. E. hlxfdiZq. In Modern English the difference between girl and lady in the meaning of woman is that the first is used in colloquial style and sounds familiar whereas the second is more formal and polite. Here are some more examples of narrowing of meaning:
Deer: | any beast | > | a certain kind of beast |
Meat: | any food | > | a certain food product) |
Boy: | any young person of the male sex | > | servant of the male sex |
It should be pointed out once more that in all these words the second meaning developed through transference based on contiguity, and that when we speak of them as examples of narrowing of meaning we simply imply that the range of the second meaning is more narrow than that of the original meaning.
The So-called «Degeneration» («Degradation») and «Elevation» of Meaning
These terms are open to question because they seem to imply that meanings can become «better» or «worse» which is neither logical nor plausible. But, as a matter-of-fact, scholars using these terms do not actually mean the degeneration or elevation of meaning itself, but of the referent onto which a word is transferred, so that the term is inaccurate.
But let us try and see what really stands behind the examples of change of meaning which are traditionally given to illustrate degeneration and elevation of meaning.
I. «Degeneration» of meaning.
These examples show that the second meaning, in contrast with the one from which it developed, denotes a person of bad repute or character. Semantically speaking, the second meaning developed a negative evaluative connotation which was absent in the first meaning.
Such a readjustment in the connotative structure accompanying the process of transference can be sometimes observed in other parts of speech, and not only in nouns.
E. g. Silly: | happy | > | foolish |
II. «Elevation» of meaning.
Fond: | foolish] > | loving, affectionate |
Nice: | foolish] > | fine, good |
In these two cases the situation is reversed: the first meaning has a negative evaluative connotation, and the second meaning has not. It is difficult to see what is actually «elevated» here. Certainly, not the meaning of the word. Here are two more examples.
Tory: | brigand, highwayman | > | member of the Tories |
Knight: | manservant | > |»noble, courageous man]
In the case of Tory, the first meaning has a pronounced negative connotation which is absent in the second meaning. But why call it «elevation»? Semantically speaking, the first meaning is just as good as the second, and the difference lies only in the connotative structure.
The case of knight, if treated linguistically, is quite opposite to that of Tory: the second meaning acquired a positive evaluative connotation that was absent in the first meaning. So, here, once more, we are faced with a mere readjustment of the connotative components of the word.
There are also some traditional examples of «elevation» in which even this readjustment cannot be traced.
In these three words the second meaning developed due to the process of transference based on contiguity. Lord and lady are also examples of narrowing of meaning if we compare the range of the original and of the resultant meanings. No connotations of evaluation can be observed in either of the meanings. The fact that in all these three cases the original meaning denoted a humble ordinary person and the second denotes a person of high rank is absolutely extralinguistic.
All that has been said and the examples that have been given show that the terms «degradation» and «elevation» of meaning are imprecise and do not seem to be an objective reflection of the semantic phenomena they describe.
It would be more credible to state that some cases of transference based on contiguity may result in development or loss of evaluative connotations.
Exercises
I. Consider your answers to the following.
1. What causes the development of new meanings? Give examples.
2. What is the basis of development or change of meaning? Explain what we mean by the term transference.
3. What types of transference can you name?
4. What is meant by the widening and the narrowing of meaning?
5. Give examples of the so-called «degradation» and «elevation» of meaning. Why are these terms imprecise?
II. Read the following extracts and explain the semantic processes by which the italicized words acquired their meanings
1. ‘Bureau’, a desk, was borrowed from French in the 17thc. In Modern French (and English) it means not only the desk but also the office itself and the authority exercised by the office. Hence the familiar bureaucracy is likely to become increasingly familiar. The desk was called so because covered with bureau, a thick coarse cloth of a brown russet.
(From The Romance of Words by E. Weekley)
2. An Earl of Spencer made a short overcoat fashionable for some time. An Earl of Sandwich invented a form of light refreshment which enabled him to take a meal without leaving the card-table. Hence we have such words as spencer and sandwich in English.
(From The Romance of Words by E. Weekley)
3. A common name for overalls or trousers is jeans. In the singular jean is also a term for a durable twilled cotton and is short for the phrase jean fustian which first appeared in texts from the sixteenth century. Fustian (a Latin borrowing) is a cotton or cotton and linen fabric, and jean is the modern spelling of Middle English Jene or Gene, from Genes, the Middle French j name of the Italian city Genoa, where it was made and shipped abroad.
(From The Merriam-Webster Book of Word Histories)
4. Formally barn meant «a storehouse for barley»; today it has widened to mean «any kind of storehouse» for animals or equipment as well as any kind of grain. | The word picture used to refer only to a representation ;:: made with paint; today it can be a photograph or a representation made with charcoal, pencil or any other ; means. A pen used to mean «feather» but now has become generalized to include several kinds of writing implements — fountain, ballpoint, etc. The meaning of sail as limited to moving on water in a ship with sails has now generalized to mean «moving on water in any ship».
(From Teaching English Linguistically by J. Malmstrom, J. Lee)
III. Read the following extract and criticize the author’s treatment of the examples. Provide your own explanations.
Words degenerate in meaning also. In the past villain meant «farm labourer»; counterfeiter meant «imitator» without criminal connotations, and sly meant «skilful». A knave meant a «boy» and immoral meant «not customary», and hussy was a «housewife».
Other words improve in meanings. Governor meant «pilot» and constable meant «stable attendant». Other elevations are enthusiasm which formally meant «fanaticism», knight which used to mean «youth», angel which simply meant «messenger» and pretty which meant «sly». No one can predict the direction of change of meaning, but changes occur constantly.
(From Teaching English Linguistically by J. Malmstrom, J. Lee)
IV. Explain the logical associations in the following groups of meaning for the same words. Define the type of transference which has taken place.
1. The wing of a bird — the wing of a building; the eye of a man — the eye of a needle; the hand of a child — the hand of a clock; the heart of a man — the heart of the matter; the bridge across-the-river — the bridge of the nose; the tongue of a person — the tongue of a bell; the tooth of a boy — the tooth of a comb; the coat of a girl — the coat of a dog.
2. Green grass — green years; black shoes — black despair; nickel (metal) — a nickel (coin); glass — a glass; copper (metal) — a copper (coin); Ford (proper name) — a Ford (car); Damascus (town in Syria) — damask; Kashmir (town in North India) — cashmere.
V. Analyse the process of development of new meanings in the italicized words in the examples given below.
1.I put the letter well into the mouth of the box and let it go and it fell turning over and over like an autumn leaf. 2. Those v/ho had been the head of the line paused momentarily on entry and looked around curiously. 3. A cheerful-looking girl in blue jeans came up to the stairs whistling. 4. Seated behind a desk, he wore a light patterned suit, switch from his usual tweeds. 5. Oh, Steven, I read a Dickens the other day. It was awfully funny. 6. They sat on the rug before the fireplace, savouring its warmth, watching the rising tongues of flame. 7. He inspired universal confidence and had an iron nerve. 8. A very small boy in a green jersey with light red hair cut square across his forehead was peering at Steven between the electric fire and the side of the fireplace. 9. While the others were settling down, Lucy saw Pearson take another bite from his sandwich. 10. As I walked nonchalantly past Hugo’s house on the other side they were already carrying out the Renoirs.
VI. Explain the basis for the following jokes. Trace the logical associations between the different meanings of the same word.
1. Father was explaining to his little son the fundamentals of astronomy.
«That’s a comet.»
«A what?»
«A comet. You know what a comet is?» «No.»
«Don’t you know what they call a star with a tail?»
«Sure — Mickey Mouse.»
2. «Pa, what branches did you take when you went to school?»
«I never went to high school, son, but when I attended the little log school-house they used mostly hickory and beech and willow.»
3. What has eyes yet never sees? (Potato)
4. H e (in telephone booth)’. I want a box for two.
Voice (at the other end): Sorry, but we don’t have boxes for two.
He: But aren’t you the box office of the theatre? Voice: No, we are the undertakers.
VII. In the examples given below identify the eases of widening and narrowing of meaning.
1. While the others waited the elderly executive filled his pipe and lit it. 2. Finn was watching the birds. 3. The two girls took hold of one another, one acting gentleman, the other lady; three or four more pairs of girls immediately joined them and began a waltz. 4. He was informed that the president had not arrived at the bank, but was on his way. 5. Smokey had followed a dictum all his life: If you want a woman to stick beside you, pick an ugly one. Ugly ones stay to slice the meat and stir the gravy.
VIII. Have the italicized words evaluative connotations in their meanings? Motivate your answer and comment on the history of the words.
1. The directors now assembling were admirals and field marshals of commerce. 2. For a businessman to be invited to serve on a top-flight bank board is roughly equivalent to being knighted by the British Queen. 3.1 had a nice newsy gossip with Mrs. Needham before you turned up last night. 4. The little half-starved guy looked more a victim than a. villain. 5. Meanwhile I nodded my head vigorously and directed a happy smile in the direction of the two ladies. 6.1 shook hands with Tom; it seemed silly not to, for I felt suddenly as though I were talking to a child.
IX. Read the following. Find examples of «degeneration» and «elevation» of meaning. Comment on the history of the words.
1. King Arthur invented Conferences because he was secretly a Weak King and liked to know what his memorable thousand and one knights wanted to do next. As they were all jealous knights he had to have the memorable Round Table made to have the Conferences at, so that it was impossible to say which was top knight.
(From 1066 and All That by C. W. Sellar, R. J. Yeatman)
2. Alf: Where are you going, Ted?
Ted: Fishing at the old mill.
Alf: But what about school?
Ted: Don’t be silly. There aren’t any fish there!
X. Try your hand at the following scientific research. Write a short essay on the development of the meanings of three of the following words. Try to explain each shift of meaning. Use «The Shorter Oxford Dictionary» or «The Merriam-Webster Book of Word Histories».
Fee, cattle, school, pupil, nice, pen, gossip, coquette, biscuit, apron, merry, silly, doom, duke, pretty, yankee.