A word about egypt

Arab Republic of Egypt جمهورية مصر العربية Arabic: Jumhūrīyat Miṣr al-ʻArabīyah Egyptian: Gomhoreyyet Maṣr el-ʿArabeyya
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: «Bilady, Bilady, Bilady» «بلادى، بلادى، بلادى» (English: «My country, my country, my country»)
Capital and largest city	Cairo 30°2′N 31°13′E / 30.033°N 31.217°E
Official languages	Arabic
National language	Egyptian Arabic[a]
Religion	See Religion in Egypt
Demonym(s)	Egyptian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
• President	Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
• Prime Minister	Moustafa Madbouly
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Representatives
Establishment
• Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt[1][2][b]	c. 3150 BC
• Muhammad Ali dynasty inaugurated	9 July 1805[3]
• Independence from United Kingdom	28 February 1922
• Revolution Day	23 July 1952
• Republic declared	18 June 1953
• Current constitution	18 January 2014
Area
• Total	1,010,408[4][5] km2 (390,121 sq mi) (29th)
• Water (%)	0.632
Population
• 2023 estimate	104,635,983[6] (14th)
• 2017 census	94,798,827[7][8]
• Density	103.56/km2 (268.2/sq mi) (118th)
GDP (PPP)	2022 estimate
• Total	$1.8 trillion[9] (18th)
• Per capita	$16,980[9] (93rd)
GDP (nominal)	2023 estimate
• Total	$378.110 billion[9] (41st)
• Per capita	$3,644[9] (128th)
Gini (2017)	31.5[10] medium
HDI (2021)	0.731[11] high · 97th
Currency	Egyptian pound (LE/E£/£E) (EGP)
Time zone	UTC+2[c] (EGY)
Driving side	right
Calling code	+20
ISO 3166 code	EG
Internet TLD	.eg مصر.
^ Literary Arabic is the sole official language.[12] Egyptian Arabic is the spoken language. Other dialects and minority languages are spoken regionally. ^ «Among the peoples of the ancient Near East, only the Egyptians have stayed where they were and remained what they were, although they have changed their language once and their religion twice. In a sense, they constitute the world’s oldest nation».[1] Arthur Goldschmidt Jr. ^ See Daylight saving time in Egypt.

Egypt (Arabic: مصر Miṣr [mesˁr], Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mɑsˤr]), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip of Palestine and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Cairo is the capital and largest city of Egypt, while Alexandria, the second-largest city, is an important industrial and tourist hub at the Mediterranean coast.^[13] At approximately 100 million inhabitants, Egypt is the 14th-most populated country in the world.

Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country, tracing its heritage along the Nile Delta back to the 6th–4th millennia BCE. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government.^[14] Iconic monuments such as the Giza Necropolis and its Great Sphinx, as well the ruins of Memphis, Thebes, Karnak, and the Valley of the Kings, reflect this legacy and remain a significant focus of scientific and popular interest. Egypt’s long and rich cultural heritage is an integral part of its national identity, which reflects its unique transcontinental location being simultaneously Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and North African.^[15] Egypt was an early and important centre of Christianity, but was largely Islamised in the seventh century and remains a predominantly Sunni Muslim country, albeit with a significant Christian minority, along with other lesser practiced faiths.

Modern Egypt dates back to 1922, when it gained independence from the British Empire as a monarchy. Following the 1952 revolution, Egypt declared itself a republic, and in 1958 it merged with Syria to form the United Arab Republic, which dissolved in 1961. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, Egypt endured social and religious strife and political instability, fighting several armed conflicts with Israel in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, and occupying the Gaza Strip intermittently until 1967. In 1978, Egypt signed the Camp David Accords, officially withdrawing from the Gaza Strip and recognising Israel. After the Arab Spring, which led to the 2011 Egyptian revolution and overthrow of Hosni Mubarak, the country faced a protracted period of political unrest. Egypt’s current government, a semi-presidential republic led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi since 2014, has been described by a number of watchdogs as authoritarian and responsible for perpetuating the country’s poor human rights record.

Islam is the official religion of Egypt and Arabic is its official language.^[16] With over 100 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa, the Middle East, and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa (after Nigeria and Ethiopia), and the fourteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypt’s territory, are sparsely inhabited. About 43% of Egypt’s residents live across the country’s urban areas,^[17] with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.

Egypt is considered to be a regional power in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world, and a middle power worldwide.^[18] It is a developing country, ranking 97th on the Human Development Index. It has a diversified economy, which is the third-largest in Africa, the 41st-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the 20th-largest globally by PPP. Egypt is a founding member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Arab League, the African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the World Youth Forum.

Names

«Miṣr» (Arabic pronunciation: [mesˤɾ]; «مِصر«) is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern official name of Egypt, while «Maṣr» (Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mɑsˤɾ]; مَصر) is the local pronunciation in Egyptian Arabic.^[21] The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew «מִצְרַיִם‎» («Miṣráyim/Mitzráyim/Mizráim«). The oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian «mi-iṣ-ru» («miṣru»)^[22][23] related to miṣru/miṣirru/miṣaru, meaning «border» or «frontier».^[24] The Neo-Assyrian Empire used the derived term , Mu-ṣur.^[25]

History

Prehistory and Ancient Egypt

There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BCE, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers was replaced by a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes or overgrazing around 8000 BCE began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralised society.^[32]

By about 6000 BCE, a Neolithic culture took root in the Nile Valley.^[33] During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to dynastic Egypt. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining culturally distinct, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BCE.^[34]

A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 BCE by King Menes, leading to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c. 2700–2200 BCE, which constructed many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza pyramids.

The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years.^[35] Stronger Nile floods and stabilisation of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BCE, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BCE and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.

The New Kingdom c. 1550–1070 BCE began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Tombos in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first historically attested expression of monotheism came during this period as Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded and conquered by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians eventually drove them out and regained control of their country.^[36]

Achaemenid Egypt

In 525 BCE, the powerful Achaemenid Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. The entire Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt, from 525 to 402 BCE, save for Petubastis III, was an entirely Persian-ruled period, with the Achaemenid Emperors all being granted the title of pharaoh. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BCE, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.^[37]

The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians again in 343 BCE after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. This Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt, however, did not last long, as the Persians were toppled several decades later by Alexander the Great. The Macedonian Greek general of Alexander, Ptolemy I Soter, founded the Ptolemaic dynasty.

Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt

The Ptolemaic Kingdom was a powerful Hellenistic state, extending from southern Syria in the east, to Cyrene to the west, and south to the frontier with Nubia. Alexandria became the capital city and a centre of Greek culture and trade. To gain recognition by the native Egyptian populace, they named themselves as the successors to the Pharaohs. The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions, had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life.^[38][39]

The last ruler from the Ptolemaic line was Cleopatra VII, who committed suicide following the burial of her lover Mark Antony who had died in her arms (from a self-inflicted stab wound), after Octavian had captured Alexandria and her mercenary forces had fled.
The Ptolemies faced rebellions of native Egyptians often caused by an unwanted regime and were involved in foreign and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome. Nevertheless, Hellenistic culture continued to thrive in Egypt well after the Muslim conquest.

Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the 1st century.^[40] Diocletian’s reign (284–305 CE) marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian. After the Council of Chalcedon in CE 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.^[41]

Middle Ages (7th century – 1517)

The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Sasanid Persian invasion early in the 7th century amidst the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 during which they established a new short-lived province for ten years known as Sasanian Egypt, until 639–42, when Egypt was invaded and
conquered by the Islamic caliphate by the Muslim Arabs. When they defeated the Byzantine armies in Egypt, the Arabs brought Islam to the country. Some time during this period, Egyptians began to blend in their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices, leading to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day.^[40] These earlier rites had survived the period of Coptic Christianity.^[42]

In 639 an army of around 4,000 men were sent in Egypt by the second caliph, Umar, under the command of Amr ibn al-As. They were joined by additional 5,000 men in 640 and defeated a Roman army at the battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. Alexandria was regained for the Byzantine Empire in 645 but was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by Constans II was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantine Romans to regain possession of the country.

The Arabs founded the capital of Egypt called Fustat, which was later burned down during the Crusades. Cairo was later built in the year 986 to grow to become the largest and richest city in the Arab caliphate, second only to Baghdad and one of the biggest and richest in the world.

Abbasid period

The Abbasid period was marked by new taxations, and the Copts revolted again in the fourth year of Abbasid rule. At the beginning of the 9th century the practice of ruling Egypt through a governor was resumed under Abdallah ibn Tahir, who decided to reside at Baghdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him. In 828 another Egyptian revolt broke out, and in 831 the Copts joined with native Muslims against the government. Eventually the power loss of the Abbasids in Baghdad has led for general upon general to take over rule of Egypt, yet being under Abbasid allegiance, the Tulunid dynasty (868–905) and Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969) were among the most successful to defy the Abbasid Caliph.

Fatimids, Ayyubids and Mamluks

Muslim rulers remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, with Cairo as the seat of the Fatimid Caliphate. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about 1250. By the late 13th century, Egypt linked the Red Sea, India, Malaya, and East Indies.^[43] The mid-14th-century Black Death killed about 40% of the country’s population.^[44]

Early modern period: Ottoman Egypt (1517–1867)

Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1517, after which it became a province of the Ottoman Empire. The defensive militarisation damaged its civil society and economic institutions.^[43] The weakening of the economic system combined with the effects of plague left Egypt vulnerable to foreign invasion. Portuguese traders took over their trade.^[43] Between 1687 and 1731, Egypt experienced six famines.^[45] The 1784 famine cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.^[46]

Egypt was always a difficult province for the Ottoman Sultans to control, due in part to the continuing power and influence of the Mamluks, the Egyptian military caste who had ruled the country for centuries.

Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by the French forces of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 (see French campaign in Egypt and Syria). After the French were defeated by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a three-way power struggle ensued between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian mercenaries in the service of the Ottomans.

Muhammad Ali dynasty

After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. While he carried the title of viceroy of Egypt, his subordination to the Ottoman porte was merely nominal. Muhammad Ali massacred the Mamluks and established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt until the revolution of 1952.

The introduction in 1820 of long-staple cotton transformed its agriculture into a cash-crop monoculture before the end of the century, concentrating land ownership and shifting production towards international markets.^[47]

Muhammad Ali annexed Northern Sudan (1820–1824), Syria (1833), and parts of Arabia and Anatolia; but in 1841 the European powers, fearful lest he topple the Ottoman Empire itself, forced him to return most of his conquests to the Ottomans. His military ambition required him to modernise the country: he built industries, a system of canals for irrigation and transport, and reformed the civil service.^[47]

He constructed a military state with around four percent of the populace serving the army to raise Egypt to a powerful positioning in the Ottoman Empire in a way showing various similarities to the Soviet strategies (without communism) conducted in the 20th century.^[48]

Muhammad Ali Pasha evolved the military from one that convened under the tradition of the corvée to a great modernised army. He introduced conscription of the male peasantry in 19th century Egypt, and took a novel approach to create his great army, strengthening it with numbers and in skill. Education and training of the new soldiers became mandatory; the new concepts were furthermore enforced by isolation. The men were held in barracks to avoid distraction of their growth as a military unit to be reckoned with. The resentment for the military way of life eventually faded from the men and a new ideology took hold, one of nationalism and pride. It was with the help of this newly reborn martial unit that Muhammad Ali imposed his rule over Egypt.^[49]

The policy that Mohammad Ali Pasha followed during his reign explains partly why the numeracy in Egypt compared to other North-African and Middle-Eastern countries increased only at a remarkably small rate, as investment in further education only took place in the military and industrial sector.^[50]

Muhammad Ali was succeeded briefly by his son Ibrahim (in September 1848), then by a grandson Abbas I (in November 1848), then by Said (in 1854), and Isma’il (in 1863) who encouraged science and agriculture and banned slavery in Egypt.^[48]

Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914)

Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or Khedivate in 1867, a legal status which was to remain in place until 1914 although the Ottomans had no power or presence.

The Suez Canal, built in partnership with the French, was completed in 1869. Its construction was financed by European banks. Large sums also went to patronage and corruption. New taxes caused popular discontent. In 1875 Isma’il avoided bankruptcy by selling all Egypt’s shares in the canal to the British government. Within three years this led to the imposition of British and French controllers who sat in the Egyptian cabinet, and, «with the financial power of the bondholders behind them, were the real power in the Government.»^[51]

Other circumstances like epidemic diseases (cattle disease in the 1880s), floods and wars drove the economic downturn and increased Egypt’s dependency on foreign debt even further.^[52]

Local dissatisfaction with the Khedive and with European intrusion led to the formation of the first nationalist groupings in 1879, with Ahmed ʻUrabi a prominent figure. After increasing tensions and nationalist revolts, the United Kingdom invaded Egypt in 1882, crushing the Egyptian army at the Battle of Tell El Kebir and militarily occupying the country.^[53] Following this, the Khedivate became a de facto British protectorate under nominal Ottoman sovereignty.^[54]

In 1899 the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement was signed: the Agreement stated that Sudan would be jointly governed by the Khedivate of Egypt and the United Kingdom. However, actual control of Sudan was in British hands only.

In 1906, the Denshawai incident prompted many neutral Egyptians to join the nationalist movement.

Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)

In 1914 the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in alliance with the Central Empires; Khedive Abbas II (who had grown increasingly hostile to the British in preceding years) decided to support the motherland in war. Following such decision, the British forcibly removed him from power and replaced him with his brother Hussein Kamel.^[55][56]

Hussein Kamel declared Egypt’s independence from the Ottoman Empire, assuming the title of Sultan of Egypt. Shortly following independence, Egypt was declared a protectorate of the United Kingdom.

After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement to a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on 8 March 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. The revolt led the UK government to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt’s independence on 22 February 1922.^[57]

Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1953)

Following independence from the United Kingdom, Sultan Fuad I assumed the title of King of Egypt; despite being nominally independent, the Kingdom was still under British military occupation and the UK still had great influence over the state.

The new government drafted and implemented a constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary system. The nationalist Wafd Party won a landslide victory in the 1923–1924 election and Saad Zaghloul was appointed as the new Prime Minister.

In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded and British troops withdrew from Egypt, except for the Suez Canal. The treaty did not resolve the question of Sudan, which, under the terms of the existing Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, stated that Sudan should be jointly governed by Egypt and Britain, but with real power remaining in British hands.^[58]

Britain used Egypt as a base for Allied operations throughout the region, especially the battles in North Africa against Italy and Germany. Its highest priorities were control of the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially keeping the Suez Canal open for merchant ships and for military connections with India and Australia. The government of Egypt, and the Egyptian population, played a minor role in the Second World War. When the war began in September 1939, Egypt declared martial law and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. It did not declare war on Germany, but the Prime Minister associated Egypt with the British war effort. It broke diplomatic relations with Italy in 1940, but never declared war, even when the Italian army invaded Egypt. King Farouk took practically a neutral position, which accorded with elite opinion among the Egyptians. The Egyptian army did no fighting. It was apathetic about the war, with the leading officers looking on the British as occupiers and sometimes holding some private sympathy with the Axis. In June 1940 the King dismissed Prime Minister Aly Maher, who got on poorly with the British. A new coalition Government was formed with the Independent Hassan Pasha Sabri as Prime Minister.

Following a ministerial crisis in February 1942, the ambassador Sir Miles Lampson, pressed Farouk to have a Wafd or Wafd-coalition government replace Hussein Sirri Pasha’s government. On the night of 4 February 1942, British troops and tanks surrounded Abdeen Palace in Cairo and Lampson presented Farouk with an ultimatum. Farouk capitulated, and Nahhas formed a government shortly thereafter. However, the humiliation meted out to Farouk, and the actions of the Wafd in cooperating with the British and taking power, lost support for both the British and the Wafd among both civilians and, more importantly, the Egyptian military.

Most British troops were withdrawn to the Suez Canal area in 1947 (although the British army maintained a military base in the area), but nationalist, anti-British feelings continued to grow after the War. Anti-monarchy sentiments further increased following the disastrous performance of the Kingdom in the First Arab-Israeli War. The 1950 election saw a landslide victory of the nationalist Wafd Party and the King was forced to appoint Mostafa El-Nahas as new Prime Minister. In 1951 Egypt unilaterally withdrew from the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 and ordered all remaining British troops to leave the Suez Canal.

As the British refused to leave their base around the Suez Canal, the Egyptian government cut off the water and refused to allow food into the Suez Canal base, announced a boycott of British goods, forbade Egyptian workers from entering the base and sponsored guerrilla attacks, turning the area around the Suez Canal into a low level war zone. On 24 January 1952, Egyptian guerrillas staged a fierce attack on the British forces around the Suez Canal, during which the Egyptian Auxiliary Police were observed helping the guerrillas. In response, on 25 January, General George Erskine sent out British tanks and infantry to surround the auxiliary police station in Ismailia and gave the policemen an hour to surrender their arms on the grounds the police were arming the guerrillas. The police commander called the Interior Minister, Fouad Serageddin, Nahas’s right-hand man, who was smoking cigars in his bath at the time, to ask if he should surrender or fight. Serageddin ordered the police to fight «to the last man and the last bullet». The resulting battle saw the police station levelled and 43 Egyptian policemen killed together with 3 British soldiers. The Ismailia incident outraged Egypt. The next day, 26 January 1952 was «Black Saturday», as the anti-British riot was known, that saw much of downtown Cairo which the Khedive Ismail the Magnificent had rebuilt in the style of Paris, burned down. Farouk blamed the Wafd for the Black Saturday riot, and dismissed Nahas as prime minister the next day. He was replaced by Aly Maher Pasha.^[59]

On 22–23 July 1952, the Free Officers Movement, led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser, launched a coup d’état (Egyptian Revolution of 1952) against the king. Farouk I abdicated the throne to his son Fouad II, who was, at the time, a seven-month-old baby. The Royal Family left Egypt some days later and the Council of Regency, led by Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim was formed, The council, however, held only nominal authority and the real power was actually in the hands of the Revolutionary Command Council, led by Naguib and Nasser.

Popular expectations for immediate reforms led to the workers’ riots in Kafr Dawar on 12 August 1952, which resulted in two death sentences. Following a brief experiment with civilian rule, the Free Officers abrogated the monarchy and the 1923 constitution and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953. Naguib was proclaimed as president, while Nasser was appointed as the new Prime Minister.

Republic of Egypt (1953–1958)

Following the 1952 Revolution by the Free Officers Movement, the rule of Egypt passed to military hands and all political parties were banned. On 18 June 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic, serving in that capacity for a little under one and a half years.

President Nasser (1956–1970)

Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – a Pan-Arabist and the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. After Naguib’s resignation, the position of President was vacant until the election of Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1956.^[60]

In October 1954 Egypt and the United Kingdom agreed to abolish the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899 and grant Sudan independence; the agreement came into force on 1 January 1956.

Nasser assumed power as president in June 1956. British forces completed their withdrawal from the occupied Suez Canal Zone on 13 June 1956. He nationalised the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956; his hostile approach towards Israel and economic nationalism prompted the beginning of the Second Arab-Israeli War (Suez Crisis), in which Israel (with support from France and the United Kingdom) occupied the Sinai peninsula and the Canal. The war came to an end because of US and USSR diplomatic intervention and the status quo was restored.

United Arab Republic (1958–1971)

In 1958, Egypt and Syria formed a sovereign union known as the United Arab Republic. The union was short-lived, ending in 1961 when Syria seceded, thus ending the union. During most of its existence, the United Arab Republic was also in a loose confederation with North Yemen (or the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen), known as the United Arab States. In 1959, the All-Palestine Government of the Gaza Strip, an Egyptian client state, was absorbed into the United Arab Republic under the pretext of Arab union, and was never restored. The Arab Socialist Union, a new nasserist state-party was founded in 1962.

In the early 1960s, Egypt became fully involved in the North Yemen Civil War. The Egyptian President, Gamal Abdel Nasser, supported the Yemeni republicans with as many as 70,000 Egyptian troops and chemical weapons. Despite several military moves and peace conferences, the war sank into a stalemate. Egyptian commitment in Yemen was greatly undermined later.

In mid May 1967, the Soviet Union issued warnings to Nasser of an impending Israeli attack on Syria. Although the chief of staff Mohamed Fawzi verified them as «baseless»,^[61][62] Nasser took three successive steps that made the war virtually inevitable: on 14 May he deployed his troops in Sinai near the border with Israel, on 19 May he expelled the UN peacekeepers stationed in the Sinai Peninsula border with Israel, and on 23 May he closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping.^[63] On 26 May Nasser declared, «The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel».^[64]

Israel re-iterated that the Straits of Tiran closure was a Casus belli. This prompted the beginning of the Third Arab Israeli War (Six-Day War) in which Israel attacked Egypt, and occupied Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip, which Egypt had occupied since the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 war, an Emergency Law was enacted, and remained in effect until 2012, with the exception of an 18-month break in 1980/81.^[65] Under this law, police powers were extended, constitutional rights suspended and censorship legalised.^[66]

At the time of the fall of the Egyptian monarchy in the early 1950s, less than half a million Egyptians were considered upper class and rich, four million middle class and 17 million lower class and poor.^[67] Fewer than half of all primary-school-age children attended school, most of them being boys. Nasser’s policies changed this. Land reform and distribution, the dramatic growth in university education, and government support to national industries greatly improved social mobility and flattened the social curve. From academic year 1953–54 through 1965–66, overall public school enrolments more than doubled. Millions of previously poor Egyptians, through education and jobs in the public sector, joined the middle class. Doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, journalists, constituted the bulk of the swelling middle class in Egypt under Nasser.^[67] During the 1960s, the Egyptian economy went from sluggish to the verge of collapse, the society became less free, and Nasser’s appeal waned considerably.^[68]

Arab Republic of Egypt (1971–present)

President Sadat (1970–1981)

In 1970, President Nasser died of a heart attack and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt’s Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972. He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while clamping down on religious and secular opposition. In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the Fourth Arab-Israeli War (Yom Kippur War), a surprise attack to regain part of the Sinai territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Eventually Israel won the war, but early successes restored Egypt’s confidence and morale, allowing Sadat to later regain Sinai in exchange for peace with Israel.^{[citation needed]}

In 1975, Sadat shifted Nasser’s economic policies and sought to use his popularity to reduce government regulations and encourage foreign investment through his program of Infitah. Through this policy, incentives such as reduced taxes and import tariffs attracted some investors, but investments were mainly directed at low risk and profitable ventures like tourism and construction, abandoning Egypt’s infant industries.^[69] Even though Sadat’s policy was intended to modernise Egypt and assist the middle class, it mainly benefited the higher class, and, because of the elimination of subsidies on basic foodstuffs, led to the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots.

In 1977, Sadat dissolved the Arab Socialist Union and replaced it with the National Democratic Party.

Sadat made a historic visit to Israel in 1977, which led to the 1979 Egypt-Israel peace treaty in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. In return, Egypt recognized Israel as a legitimate sovereign state. Sadat’s initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by most Egyptians.^[70] Sadat was assassinated by an Islamic extremist in October 1981.

President Mubarak (1981–2011)

Hosni Mubarak came to power after the assassination of Sadat in a referendum in which he was the only candidate.^[71]

Hosni Mubarak reaffirmed Egypt’s relationship with Israel yet eased the tensions with Egypt’s Arab neighbours. Domestically, Mubarak faced serious problems. Even though farm and industry output expanded, the economy could not keep pace with the population boom. Mass poverty and unemployment led rural families to stream into cities like Cairo where they ended up in crowded slums, barely managing to survive.

On 25 February 1986, the Security Police started rioting, protesting against reports that their term of duty was to be extended from 3 to 4 years. Hotels, nightclubs, restaurants and casinos were attacked in Cairo and there were riots in other cities. A day time curfew was imposed. It took the army 3 days to restore order. 107 people were killed.^[72]

In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became numerous and severe, and began to target Christian Copts, foreign tourists and government officials.^[73] In the 1990s an Islamist group, Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya, engaged in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt’s economy—tourism^[74]—and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depended for support.^[75]

During Mubarak’s reign, the political scene was dominated by the National Democratic Party, which was created by Sadat in 1978. It passed the 1993 Syndicates Law, 1995 Press Law, and 1999 Nongovernmental Associations Law which hampered freedoms of association and expression by imposing new regulations and draconian penalties on violations.^[76] As a result, by the late 1990s parliamentary politics had become virtually irrelevant and alternative avenues for political expression were curtailed as well.^[77]

On 17 November 1997, 62 people, mostly tourists, were massacred near Luxor.

In late February 2005, Mubarak announced a reform of the presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls for the first time since the 1952 movement.^[78] However, the new law placed restrictions on the candidates, and led to Mubarak’s easy re-election victory.^[79] Voter turnout was less than 25%.^[80] Election observers also alleged government interference in the election process.^[81] After the election, Mubarak imprisoned Ayman Nour, the runner-up.^[82]

Human Rights Watch’s 2006 report on Egypt detailed serious human rights violations, including routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts.^[83] In 2007, Amnesty International released a report alleging that Egypt had become an international centre for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror.^[84] Egypt’s foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report.^[85]

Constitutional changes voted on 19 March 2007 prohibited parties from using religion as a basis for political activity, allowed the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law, authorised broad police powers of arrest and surveillance, and gave the president power to dissolve parliament and end judicial election monitoring.^[86] In 2009, Dr. Ali El Deen Hilal Dessouki, Media Secretary of the National Democratic Party (NDP), described Egypt as a «pharaonic» political system, and democracy as a «long-term goal». Dessouki also stated that «the real center of power in Egypt is the military».^[87]

Revolution (2011)

On 25 January 2011, widespread protests began against Mubarak’s government. On 11 February 2011, Mubarak resigned and fled Cairo. Jubilant celebrations broke out in Cairo’s Tahrir Square at the news.^[88] The Egyptian military then assumed the power to govern.^[89][90] Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, became the de facto interim head of state.^[91][92] On 13 February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.^[93]

A constitutional referendum was held on 19 March 2011.^[94] On 28 November 2011, Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Turnout was high and there were no reports of major irregularities or violence.^[95]

President Morsi (2012–2013)

Mohamed Morsi was elected president on 24 June 2012.^[96] On 30 June 2012, Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as Egypt’s president.^[97] On 2 August 2012, Egypt’s Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35-member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood.^[98]

Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamic practices, while Muslim Brotherhood backers threw their support behind Morsi.^[99] On 22 November 2012, President Morsi issued a temporary declaration immunising his decrees from challenge and seeking to protect the work of the constituent assembly.^[100]

The move led to massive protests and violent action throughout Egypt.^[101] On 5 December 2012, tens of thousands of supporters and opponents of President Morsi clashed, in what was described as the largest violent battle between Islamists and their foes since the country’s revolution.^[102] Mohamed Morsi offered a «national dialogue» with opposition leaders but refused to cancel the December 2012 constitutional referendum.^[103]

Political crisis (2013)

On 3 July 2013, after a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of Morsi’s Muslim Brotherhood government,^[104] the military removed Morsi from office, dissolved the Shura Council and installed a temporary interim government.^[105]

On 4 July 2013, 68-year-old Chief Justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt Adly Mansour was sworn in as acting president over the new government following the removal of Morsi.^[106] The new Egyptian authorities cracked down on the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters, jailing thousands and forcefully dispersing pro-Morsi and pro-Brotherhood protests.^[107][108] Many of the Muslim Brotherhood leaders and activists have either been sentenced to death or life imprisonment in a series of mass trials.^{[109][110][111]}

On 18 January 2014, the interim government instituted a new constitution following a referendum approved by an overwhelming majority of voters (98.1%). 38.6% of registered voters participated in the referendum^[112] a higher number than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi’s tenure.^[113]

President el-Sisi (2014–present)

On 26 March 2014, Field Marshal Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, Egyptian Defence Minister and Commander-in-Chief Egyptian Armed Forces, retired from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election.^[114] The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a landslide victory for el-Sisi.^[115] Sisi was sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014.^[116] The Muslim Brotherhood and some liberal and secular activist groups boycotted the vote.^[117] Even though the interim authorities extended voting to a third day, the 46% turnout was lower than the 52% turnout in the 2012 election.^[118]

A new parliamentary election was held in December 2015, resulting in a landslide victory for pro-Sisi parties, which secured a strong majority in the newly formed House of Representatives.^[119]

In 2016, Egypt entered in a diplomatic crisis with Italy following the murder of researcher Giulio Regeni: in April 2016, Prime Minister Matteo Renzi recalled the Italian ambassador from Cairo because of lack of co-operation from the Egyptian Government in the investigation.^[120] The ambassador was sent back to Egypt in 2017 by the new Prime Minister Paolo Gentiloni.^[121]

El-Sisi was re-elected in 2018, facing no serious opposition.^[122] In 2019, a series of constitutional amendments were approved by the parliament, further increasing the President’s and the military’s power, increasing presidential terms from 4 years to 6 years and allowing El-Sisi to run for another two mandates.^[123] The proposals were approved in a referendum.^[124]

The dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam escalated in 2020.^[125][126] Egypt sees the dam as an existential threat,^[127] fearing that the dam will reduce the amount of water it receives from the Nile.^[128]

In December 2020, final results of the parliamentary election confirmed a clear majority of the seats for Egypt’s Mostaqbal Watn (Nation’s Future) Party, which strongly supports president el-Sisi. The party even increased its majority, partly because of new electoral rules.^[129]

Geography

Egypt lies primarily between latitudes 22° and 32°N, and longitudes 25° and 35°E. At 1,001,450 square kilometres (386,660 sq mi), it is the world’s 30th-largest country.^[130] Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt’s climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses about 5.5% of the total land area.^[131] 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.^[132]

Egypt is bordered by Libya to the west, the Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. Egypt’s important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea.

Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt’s landscape is desert, with a few oases scattered about. Winds create prolific sand dunes that peak at more than 30 metres (100 ft) high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats and were referred to as the «red land» in ancient Egypt.

Towns and cities include Alexandria, the second largest city; Aswan; Asyut; Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital and largest city; El Mahalla El Kubra; Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu; Hurghada; Luxor; Kom Ombo; Port Safaga; Port Said; Sharm El Sheikh; Suez, where the south end of the Suez Canal is located; Zagazig; and Minya. Oases include Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra, Kharga and Siwa. Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.

On 13 March 2015, plans for a proposed new capital of Egypt were announced.^[133]

Climate

Most of Egypt’s rain falls in the winter months.^[134] South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 2 to 5 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 410 mm (16.1 in),^[135] mostly between October and March. Snow falls on Sinai’s mountains and some of the north coastal cities such as Damietta, Baltim and Sidi Barrani, and rarely in Alexandria. A very small amount of snow fell on Cairo on 13 December 2013, the first time in many decades.^[136] Frost is also known in mid-Sinai and mid-Egypt. Egypt is the driest and the sunniest country in the world, and most of its land surface is desert.

Egypt has an unusually hot, sunny and dry climate. Average high temperatures are high in the north but very to extremely high in the rest of the country during summer. The cooler Mediterranean winds consistently blow over the northern sea coast, which helps to get more moderated temperatures, especially at the height of the summertime. The Khamaseen is a hot, dry wind that originates from the vast deserts in the south and blows in the spring or in the early summer. It brings scorching sand and dust particles, and usually brings daytime temperatures over 40 °C (104 °F) and sometimes over 50 °C (122 °F) in the interior, while the relative humidity can drop to 5% or even less. The absolute highest temperatures in Egypt occur when the Khamaseen blows. The weather is always sunny and clear in Egypt, especially in cities such as Aswan, Luxor and Asyut. It is one of the least cloudy and least rainy regions on Earth.

Prior to the construction of the Aswan Dam, the Nile flooded annually (colloquially The Gift of the Nile) replenishing Egypt’s soil. This gave Egypt a consistent harvest throughout the years.

The potential rise in sea levels due to global warming could threaten Egypt’s densely populated coastal strip and have grave consequences for the country’s economy, agriculture and industry. Combined with growing demographic pressures, a significant rise in sea levels could turn millions of Egyptians into environmental refugees by the end of the 21st century, according to some climate experts.^[137][138]

Biodiversity

Egypt signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 9 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 2 June 1994.^[139] It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, which was received by the convention on 31 July 1998.^[140] Where many CBD National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans neglect biological kingdoms apart from animals and plants,^[141] Egypt’s plan was unusual in providing balanced information about all forms of life.

The plan stated that the following numbers of species of different groups had been recorded from Egypt: algae (1483 species), animals (about 15,000 species of which more than 10,000 were insects), fungi (more than 627 species), monera (319 species), plants (2426 species), protozoans (371 species). For some major groups, for example lichen-forming fungi and nematode worms, the number was not known. Apart from small and well-studied groups like amphibians, birds, fish, mammals and reptiles, the many of those numbers are likely to increase as further species are recorded from Egypt. For the fungi, including lichen-forming species, for example, subsequent work has shown that over 2200 species have been recorded from Egypt, and the final figure of all fungi actually occurring in the country is expected to be much higher.^[142] For the grasses, 284 native and naturalised species have been identified and recorded in Egypt.^[143]

Government

The House of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. Elections were last held between November 2011 and January 2012 which was later dissolved. The next parliamentary election was announced to be held within 6 months of the constitution’s ratification on 18 January 2014, and were held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015.^[144] Originally, the parliament was to be formed before the president was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour pushed the date.^[145] The 2014 Egyptian presidential election took place on 26–28 May. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes, or 96.9% compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.^[146]

After a wave of public discontent with autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi,^[104] on 3 July 2013 then-General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced the removal of Morsi from office and the suspension of the constitution. A 50-member constitution committee was formed for modifying the constitution which was later published for public voting and was adopted on 18 January 2014.^[147]

In 2013, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at 5 (with 1 representing the most free and 7 the least), and civil liberties at 5, which gave it the freedom rating of «Partly Free».^[148]

Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century.^[149] The ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood is mostly supported by the lower-middle strata of Egyptian society.^[150]

Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world.^[151] The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded as a result of the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, after the country’s independence was declared, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy.^[151]

Military and foreign relations

The military is influential in the political and economic life of Egypt and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoys considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and has been widely considered part of the Egyptian «deep state».^{[71][152][153]}

Egypt is speculated by Israel to be the second country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1^[154] in addition to EgyptSat 2 launched on 16 April 2014.^[155]

The United States provides Egypt with annual military assistance, which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion.^[156] In 1989, Egypt was designated as a major non-NATO ally of the United States.^[157] Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since the July 2013 overthrow of Islamist president Mohamed Morsi,^[158] with the Obama administration denouncing Egypt over its crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood, and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries.^[159] There have been recent attempts, however, to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the fight against regional and international terrorism.^{[160][161][162]} However, following the election of Republican Donald Trump as the President of the United States, the two countries were looking to improve the Egyptian-American relations. On 3 April 2017 al-Sisi met with Trump at the White House, marking the first visit of an Egyptian president to Washington in 8 years. Trump praised al-Sisi in what was reported as a public relations victory for the Egyptian president, and signaled it was time for a normalization of the relations between Egypt and the US.^[163]

Relations with Russia have improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi’s removal^[164] and both countries have worked since then to strengthen military^[165] and trade ties^[166] among other aspects of bilateral co-operation. Relations with China have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China established a bilateral «comprehensive strategic partnership».^[167] In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Egypt, have signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China’s treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.^[168]

The permanent headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the body’s secretary general has traditionally been Egyptian. This position is currently held by former foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the United Arab Emirates^[169] and Saudi Arabia,^[170] have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the overthrow of Morsi.^[171]

Following the 1973 war and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establish diplomatic relations with Israel. Despite that, Israel is still widely considered as a hostile state by the majority of Egyptians.^[172] Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the peace process.^[173] Egypt’s ceasefire and truce brokering efforts in Gaza have hardly been challenged following Israel’s evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards the Hamas government in Gaza following the ouster of Mohamed Morsi,^[174] and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.^[175]

Ties between Egypt and other non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, including Iran and Turkey, have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mostly due to Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel and Iran’s rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf.^[176] Turkey’s recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in Libya also made both countries bitter regional rivals.^[177]

Egypt is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It is also a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie, since 1983. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted «harsh, sometimes lethal» methods of border control.^[178]

Law

The legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations.^[59]

Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice.^[179] The personal status law that regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody is governed by Sharia. In a family court, a woman’s testimony is worth half of a man’s testimony.^[180]

On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It was approved by the public in a referendum held 15–22 December 2012 with 64% support, but with only 33% electorate participation.^[181] It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution.

The Penal code was unique as it contains a «Blasphemy Law.»^[182] The present court system allows a death penalty including against an absent individual tried in absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.^[183]

On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution.^[184] The president is elected to a four-year term and may serve 2 terms.^[184] The parliament may impeach the president.^[184] Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought.^[184] The military retains the ability to appoint the national Minister of Defence for the next two full presidential terms since the constitution took effect.^[184] Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on «religion, race, gender or geography».^[184]

Human rights

The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.^[185] In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights.^[186] Shortly after its foundation, the council came under heavy criticism by local activists, who contend it was a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its own violations^[187] and to give legitimacy to repressive laws such as the Emergency Law.^[188]

The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life ranks Egypt as the fifth worst country in the world for religious freedom.^[189][190] The United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, a bipartisan independent agency of the US government, has placed Egypt on its watch list of countries that require close monitoring due to the nature and extent of violations of religious freedom engaged in or tolerated by the government.^[191] According to a 2010 Pew Global Attitudes survey, 84% of Egyptians polled supported the death penalty for those who leave Islam; 77% supported whippings and cutting off of hands for theft and robbery; and 82% support stoning a person who commits adultery.^[192]

Coptic Christians face discrimination at multiple levels of the government, ranging from underrepresentation in government ministries to laws that limit their ability to build or repair churches.^[193] Intolerance towards followers of the Baháʼí Faith, and those of the non-orthodox Muslim sects, such as Sufis, Shi’a and Ahmadis, also remains a problem.^[83] When the government moved to computerise identification cards, members of religious minorities, such as Baháʼís, could not obtain identification documents.^[194] An Egyptian court ruled in early 2008 that members of other faiths may obtain identity cards without listing their faiths, and without becoming officially recognised.^[195]

Clashes continued between police and supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi. During violent clashes that ensued as part of the August 2013 sit-in dispersal, 595 protesters were killed^[196] with 14 August 2013 becoming the single deadliest day in Egypt’s modern history.^[197]

Egypt actively practices capital punishment. Egypt’s authorities do not release figures on death sentences and executions, despite repeated requests over the years by human rights organisations.^[198] The United Nations human rights office^[199] and various NGOs^[198][200] expressed «deep alarm» after an Egyptian Minya Criminal Court sentenced 529 people to death in a single hearing on 25 March 2014. Sentenced supporters of former President Mohamed Morsi were to be executed for their alleged role in violence following his removal in July 2013. The judgement was condemned as a violation of international law.^[201] By May 2014, approximately 16,000 people (and as high as more than 40,000 by one independent count, according to The Economist),^[202] mostly Brotherhood members or supporters, have been imprisoned after Morsi’s removal^[203] after the Muslim Brotherhood was labelled as terrorist organisation by the post-Morsi interim Egyptian government.^[204] According to human rights groups there are some 60,000 political prisoners in Egypt.^[205][206]

After Morsi was ousted by the military, the judiciary system aligned itself with the new government, actively supporting the repression of Muslim Brotherhood members. This resulted in a sharp increase in mass death sentences that aroused criticism from then-U.S. President Barack Obama and the General Secretary of the UN, Ban Ki Moon.

Homosexuality is illegal in Egypt.^[208] According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 95% of Egyptians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.^[209]

In 2017, Cairo was voted the most dangerous megacity for women with more than 10 million inhabitants in a poll by Thomson Reuters Foundation. Sexual harassment was described as occurring on a daily basis.^[210]

Freedom of the press

Reporters Without Borders ranked Egypt in their 2017 World Press Freedom Index at No. 160 out of 180 nations. At least 18 journalists were imprisoned in Egypt, as of August 2015. A new anti-terror law was enacted in August 2015 that threatens members of the media with fines ranging from about US$25,000 to $60,000 for the distribution of wrong information on acts of terror inside the country «that differ from official declarations of the Egyptian Department of Defense».^[211]

Some critics of the government have been arrested for allegedly spreading false information about the COVID-19 pandemic in Egypt.^[212][213]

Administrative divisions

Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.^[214]

Economy

Egypt’s economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, natural gas, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Libya, Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honoured place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.

On 2022 The Egyptian economy entered an ongoing crisis, the Egyptian pound was one of the worst performing currencies^[215] ,inflation. reached 32.6% and core inflation reached nearly 40% on March.^[216]

The government has invested in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has received United States foreign aid since 1979 (an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Egypt’s economy mainly relies on these sources of income: tourism, remittances from Egyptians working abroad and revenues from the Suez Canal.^[217]

Economic conditions have started to improve considerably, after a period of stagnation, due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.^[218] Some major economic reforms undertaken by the government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by 2006.

Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the limited trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticise their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Corruption is often cited by Egyptians as the main impediment to further economic growth.^[219][220] The government promised major reconstruction of the country’s infrastructure, using money paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat in 2006.^[221] In the Corruption Perceptions Index 2013, Egypt was ranked 114 out of 177.^[222]

An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians abroad contribute actively to the development of their country through remittances (US$7.8 billion in 2009), as well as circulation of human and social capital and investment.^[223] Remittances, money earned by Egyptians living abroad and sent home, reached a record US$21 billion in 2012, according to the World Bank.^[224]

Egyptian society is moderately unequal in terms of income distribution, with an estimated 35–40% of Egypt’s population earning less than the equivalent of $2 a day, while only around 2–3% may be considered wealthy.^[225]

Tourism

Tourism is one of the most important sectors in Egypt’s economy. More than 12.8 million tourists visited Egypt in 2008, providing revenues of nearly $11 billion. The tourism sector employs about 12% of Egypt’s workforce.^[226] Tourism Minister Hisham Zaazou told industry professionals and reporters that tourism generated some $9.4 billion in 2012, a slight increase over the $9 billion seen in 2011.^[227]

The Giza Necropolis is one of Egypt’s best-known tourist attractions; it is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.

Egypt’s beaches on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, which extend to over 3,000 kilometres (1,900 miles), are also popular tourist destinations; the Gulf of Aqaba beaches, Safaga, Sharm el-Sheikh, Hurghada, Luxor, Dahab, Ras Sidr and Marsa Alam are popular sites.

Energy

Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits in the northeast Sinai are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons) per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at 2,180 cubic kilometres (520 cu mi),^[228] and LNG up to 2012 exported to many countries. In 2013, the Egyptian General Petroleum Co (EGPC) said the country will cut exports of natural gas and tell major industries to slow output this summer to avoid an energy crisis and stave off political unrest, Reuters has reported. Egypt is counting on top liquid natural gas (LNG) exporter Qatar to obtain additional gas volumes in summer, while encouraging factories to plan their annual maintenance for those months of peak demand, said EGPC chairman, Tarek El Barkatawy. Egypt produces its own energy, but has been a net oil importer since 2008 and is rapidly becoming a net importer of natural gas.^[229]

Egypt produced 691,000 bbl/d of oil and 2,141.05 Tcf of natural gas in 2013, making the country the largest non-OPEC producer of oil and the second-largest dry natural gas producer in Africa. In 2013, Egypt was the largest consumer of oil and natural gas in Africa, as more than 20% of total oil consumption and more than 40% of total dry natural gas consumption in Africa. Also, Egypt possesses the largest oil refinery capacity in Africa 726,000 bbl/d (in 2012).^[228]

Egypt is currently planning to build its first nuclear power plant in El Dabaa, in the northern part of the country, with $25 billion in Russian financing.^[230]

Transport

Transport in Egypt is centred around Cairo and largely follows the pattern of settlement along the Nile. The main line of the nation’s 40,800-kilometre (25,400 mi) railway network runs from Alexandria to Aswan and is operated by Egyptian National Railways. The vehicle road network has expanded rapidly to over 34,000 km (21,000 mi), consisting of 28 line, 796 stations, 1800 train covering the Nile Valley and Nile Delta, the Mediterranean and Red Sea coasts, the Sinai, and the Western oases.

The Cairo Metro in Egypt is the first of only two full-fledged metro systems in Africa and the Arab World. It is considered one of the most important recent projects in Egypt which cost around 12 billion Egyptian pounds. The system consists of three operational lines with a fourth line expected in the future.

EgyptAir, which is now the country’s flag carrier and largest airline, was founded in 1932 by Egyptian industrialist Talaat Harb, today owned by the Egyptian government. The airline is based at Cairo International Airport, its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to more than 75 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The Current EgyptAir fleet includes 80 aeroplanes.

Suez Canal

The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt considered the most important centre of the maritime transport in the Middle East, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows ship transport between Europe and Asia without navigation around Africa. The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfiq at the city of Suez. Ismailia lies on its west bank, 3 kilometres (1+7⁄8 miles) from the half-way point.

The canal is 193.30 km (120+1⁄8 mi) long, 24 metres (79 feet) deep and 205 m (673 ft) wide as of 2010. It consists of the northern access channel of 22 km (14 mi), the canal itself of 162.25 km (100+7⁄8 mi) and the southern access channel of 9 km (5+1⁄2 mi). The canal is a single lane with passing places in the Ballah By-Pass and the Great Bitter Lake. It contains no locks; seawater flows freely through the canal. In general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. The current south of the lakes changes with the tide at Suez.

On 26 August 2014 a proposal was made for opening a New Suez Canal. Work on the New Suez Canal was completed in July 2015.^[231][232] The channel was officially inaugurated with a ceremony attended by foreign leaders and featuring military flyovers on 6 August 2015, in accordance with the budgets laid out for the project.^[233][234]

Water supply and sanitation

The piped water supply in Egypt increased between 1990 and 2010 from 89% to 100% in urban areas and from 39% to 93% in rural areas despite rapid population growth. Over that period, Egypt achieved the elimination of open defecation in rural areas and invested in infrastructure. Access to an improved water source in Egypt is now practically universal with a rate of 99%. About one half of the population is connected to sanitary sewers.^[235]

Partly because of low sanitation coverage about 17,000 children die each year because of diarrhoea.^[236] Another challenge is low cost recovery due to water tariffs that are among the lowest in the world. This in turn requires government subsidies even for operating costs, a situation that has been aggravated by salary increases without tariff increases after the Arab Spring. Poor operation of facilities, such as water and wastewater treatment plants, as well as limited government accountability and transparency, are also issues.

Due to the absence of appreciable rainfall, Egypt’s agriculture depends entirely on irrigation. The main source of irrigation water is the river Nile of which the flow is controlled by the high dam at Aswan. It releases, on average, 55 cubic kilometres (45,000,000 acre·ft) water per year, of which some 46 cubic kilometres (37,000,000 acre·ft) are diverted into the irrigation canals.^[237]

In the Nile valley and delta, almost 33,600 square kilometres (13,000 sq mi) of land benefit from these irrigation waters producing on average 1.8 crops per year.^[237]

Demographics

Historical populations in thousands

Year	Pop.	±% p.a.
1882	6,712	—
1897	9,669	+2.46%
1907	11,190	+1.47%
1917	12,718	+1.29%
1927	14,178	+1.09%
1937	15,921	+1.17%
1947	18,967	+1.77%
1960	26,085	+2.48%
1966	30,076	+2.40%
1976	36,626	+1.99%
1986	48,254	+2.80%
1996	59,312	+2.08%
2006	72,798	+2.07%
2017	94,798	+2.43%
Source: Population in Egypt[238][8]

Egypt is the most populated country in the Arab world and the third most populous on the African continent, with about 95 million inhabitants as of 2017.^[239] Its population grew rapidly from 1970 to 2010 due to medical advances and increases in agricultural productivity^[240] enabled by the Green Revolution.^[241] Egypt’s population was estimated at 3 million when Napoleon invaded the country in 1798.^[242]

Egypt’s people are highly urbanised, being concentrated along the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Egyptians are divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centres and the fellahin, or farmers, that reside in rural villages. The total inhabited area constitutes only 77,041 km², putting the physiological density at over 1,200 people per km², similar to Bangladesh.

While emigration was restricted under Nasser, thousands of Egyptian professionals were dispatched abroad in the context of the Arab Cold War.^[243] Egyptian emigration was liberalised in 1971, under President Sadat, reaching record numbers after the 1973 oil crisis.^[244] An estimated 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. Approximately 70% of Egyptian migrants live in Arab countries (923,600 in Saudi Arabia, 332,600 in Libya, 226,850 in Jordan, 190,550 in Kuwait with the rest elsewhere in the region) and the remaining 30% reside mostly in Europe and North America (318,000 in the United States, 110,000 in Canada and 90,000 in Italy).^[223] The process of emigrating to non-Arab states has been ongoing since the 1950s.^[245]

Ethnic groups

Ethnic Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in the country, constituting 99.7% of the total population.^[59] Ethnic minorities include the Abazas, Turks, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal Beja communities concentrated in the southeasternmost corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanisation increases.

Some 5 million immigrants live in Egypt, mostly Sudanese, «some of whom have lived in Egypt for generations».^[246] Smaller numbers of immigrants come from Iraq, Ethiopia, Somalia, South Sudan, and Eritrea.^[246]

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that the total number of «people of concern» (refugees, asylum seekers, and stateless people) was about 250,000. In 2015, the number of registered Syrian refugees in Egypt was 117,000, a decrease from the previous year.^[246] Egyptian government claims that a half-million Syrian refugees live in Egypt are thought to be exaggerated.^[246] There are 28,000 registered Sudanese refugees in Egypt.^[246]

The once-vibrant and ancient Greek and Jewish communities in Egypt have almost disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious or other occasions and tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.

Languages

The official language of the Republic is Literary Arabic.^[247] The spoken languages are: Egyptian Arabic (68%), Sa’idi Arabic (29%), Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic (1.6%), Sudanese Arabic (0.6%), Domari (0.3%), Nobiin (0.3%), Beja (0.1%), Siwi and others.^{[citation needed]} Additionally, Greek, Armenian and Italian, and more recently, African languages like Amharic and Tigrigna are the main languages of immigrants.

The main foreign languages taught in schools, by order of popularity, are English, French, German and Italian.

Historically Egyptian was spoken, the latest stage of which is Coptic Egyptian. Spoken Coptic was mostly extinct by the 17th century but may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt as late as the 19th century. It remains in use as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.^[248][249] It forms a separate branch among the family of Afroasiatic languages.

Religion

Egypt has the largest Muslim population in the Arab world, and the sixth world’s largest Muslim population, and home for (5%) of the world’s Muslim population.^[250] Egypt also has the largest Christian population in the Middle East and North Africa.^[251]

Egypt is a predominantly Sunni Muslim country with Islam as its state religion. The percentage of adherents of various religions is a controversial topic in Egypt. An estimated 85–90% are identified as Muslim, 10–15% as Coptic Christians, and 1% as other Christian denominations, although without a census the numbers cannot be known. Other estimates put the Christian population as high as 15–20%.^{[note 1]} Non-denominational Muslims form roughly 12% of the population.^[258][259]

Egypt was a Christian country before the 7th century, and after Islam arrived, the country was gradually Islamised into a majority-Muslim country.^[260][261] It is not known when Muslims reached a majority variously estimated from c. 1000 CE to as late as the 14th century. Egypt emerged as a centre of politics and culture in the Muslim world. Under Anwar Sadat, Islam became the official state religion and Sharia the main source of law.^[262] It is estimated that 15 million Egyptians follow Native Sufi orders,^{[263][264][265]} with the Sufi leadership asserting that the numbers are much greater as many Egyptian Sufis are not officially registered with a Sufi order.^[264] At least 305 people were killed during a November 2017 attack on a Sufi mosque in Sinai.^[266]

There is also a Shi’a minority. The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs estimates the Shia population at 1 to 2.2 million^[267] and could measure as much as 3 million.^[268] The Ahmadiyya population is estimated at less than 50,000,^[269] whereas the Salafi (ultra-conservative Sunni) population is estimated at five to six million.^[270] Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and has been dubbed «The City of 1,000 Minarets».^[271]

Of the Christian population in Egypt over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church.^[272] Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the Syro-Lebanese, who belong to Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Maronite Catholic denominations.^[273]

Ethnic Greeks also made up a large Greek Orthodox population in the past. Likewise, Armenians made up the then larger Armenian Orthodox and Catholic communities. Egypt also used to have a large Roman Catholic community, largely made up of Italians and Maltese. These non-native communities were much larger in Egypt before the Nasser regime and the nationalisation that took place.

Egypt hosts the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. It was founded back in the first century, considered to be the largest church in the country.

Egypt is also the home of Al-Azhar University (founded in 969 CE, began teaching in 975 CE), which is today the world’s «most influential voice of establishment Sunni Islam» and is, by some measures, the second-oldest continuously operating university in the world.^[274]

Egypt recognises only three religions: Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Other faiths and minority Muslim sects practised by Egyptians, such as the small Baháʼí Faith and Ahmadiyya communities, are not recognised by the state and face persecution by the government, which labels these groups a threat to Egypt’s national security.^[275][276] Individuals, particularly Baháʼís and atheists, wishing to include their religion (or lack thereof) on their mandatory state issued identification cards are denied this ability (see Egyptian identification card controversy), and are put in the position of either not obtaining required identification or lying about their faith. A 2008 court ruling allowed members of unrecognised faiths to obtain identification and leave the religion field blank.^[194][195]

Education

The illiteracy rate has decreased since 1996 from 39.4 to 25.9 percent in 2013. The adult literacy rate as of July 2014 was estimated at 73.9%.^[277] The illiteracy rate is highest among those over 60 years of age being estimated at 64.9%, while illiteracy among youth between 15 and 24 years of age was listed at 8.6 percent.^[278]

A European-style education system was first introduced in Egypt by the Ottomans in the early 19th century to nurture a class of loyal bureaucrats and army officers.^[279] Under British occupation investment in education was curbed drastically, and secular public schools, which had previously been free, began to charge fees.^[279]

In the 1950s, President Nasser phased in free education for all Egyptians.^[279] The Egyptian curriculum influenced other Arab education systems, which often employed Egyptian-trained teachers.^[279] Demand soon outstripped the level of available state resources, causing the quality of public education to deteriorate.^[279] Today this trend has culminated in poor teacher–student ratios (often around one to fifty) and persistent gender inequality.^[279]

Basic education, which includes six years of primary and three years of preparatory school, is a right for Egyptian children from the age of six.^[280] After grade 9, students are tracked into one of two strands of secondary education: general or technical schools. General secondary education prepares students for further education, and graduates of this track normally join higher education institutes based on the results of the Thanaweya Amma, the leaving exam.^[280]

Technical secondary education has two strands, one lasting three years and a more advanced education lasting five. Graduates of these schools may have access to higher education based on their results on the final exam, but this is generally uncommon.^[280]

Cairo University is Egypt’s premier public university. The country is currently opening new research institutes for the aim of modernising research in the nation, the most recent example of which is Zewail City of Science and Technology. Egypt was ranked 94th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 92nd in 2019.^[281][282]

Health

Egyptian life expectancy at birth was 73.20 years in 2011, or 71.30 years for males and 75.20 years for females. Egypt spends 3.7 percent of its gross domestic product on health including treatment costs 22 percent incurred by citizens and the rest by the state.^[283] In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 4.66% of the country’s GDP. In 2009, there were 16.04 physicians and 33.80 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.^[284]

As a result of modernisation efforts over the years, Egypt’s healthcare system has made great strides forward. Access to healthcare in both urban and rural areas greatly improved and immunisation programs are now able to cover 98% of the population. Life expectancy increased from 44.8 years during the 1960s to 72.12 years in 2009. There was a noticeable decline of the infant mortality rate (during the 1970s to the 1980s the infant mortality rate was 101–132/1000 live births, in 2000 the rate was 50–60/1000, and in 2008 it was 28–30/1000).^[285]

According to the World Health Organization in 2008, an estimated 91.1% of Egypt’s girls and women aged 15 to 49 have been subjected to genital mutilation,^[286] despite being illegal in the country. In 2016 the law was amended to impose tougher penalties on those convicted of performing the procedure, pegging the highest jail term at 15 years. Those who escort victims to the procedure can also face jail terms up to 3 years.^[287]

The total number of Egyptians with health insurance reached 37 million in 2009, of which 11 million are minors, providing an insurance coverage of approximately 52 percent of Egypt’s population.^[288]

Largest cities

Culture

Egypt is a recognised cultural trend-setter of the Arabic-speaking world. Contemporary Arabic and Middle-Eastern culture is heavily influenced by Egyptian literature, music, film and television. Egypt gained a regional leadership role during the 1950s and 1960s, giving a further enduring boost to the standing of Egyptian culture in the Arabic-speaking world.^[289]

Egyptian identity evolved in the span of a long period of occupation to accommodate Islam, Christianity and Judaism; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic which is also based on many Ancient Egyptian words.^[290]

The work of early 19th century scholar Rifa’a al-Tahtawi renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars, such as Suyuti and Maqrizi, who themselves studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.^[291]

Egypt’s renaissance peaked in the late 19th and early 20th centuries through the work of people like Muhammad Abduh, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, Muhammad Loutfi Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, Taha Hussein and Mahmoud Mokhtar. They forged a liberal path for Egypt expressed as a commitment to personal freedom, secularism and faith in science to bring progress.^[292]

Arts

The Egyptians were one of the first major civilisations to codify design elements in art and architecture. Egyptian blue, also known as calcium copper silicate is a pigment used by Egyptians for thousands of years. It is considered to be the first synthetic pigment. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings. Egyptian civilisation is renowned for its colossal pyramids, temples and monumental tombs.

Well-known examples are the Pyramid of Djoser designed by ancient architect and engineer Imhotep, the Sphinx, and the temple of Abu Simbel. Modern and contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene, from the vernacular architecture of Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa Wassef, to Mahmoud Mokhtar’s sculptures, to the distinctive Coptic iconography of Isaac Fanous. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.

Literature

Egyptian literature traces its beginnings to ancient Egypt and is some of the earliest known literature. Indeed, the Egyptians were the first culture to develop literature as we know it today, that is, the book.^[293] It is an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Arab world.^[294] The first modern Egyptian novel Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal was published in 1913 in the Egyptian vernacular.^[295] Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat who also writes about women and tradition.

Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by the works of Ahmed Fouad Negm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.^[296]

Media

Egyptian media are highly influential throughout the Arab World, attributed to large audiences and increasing freedom from government control.^[297][298] Freedom of the media is guaranteed in the constitution; however, many laws still restrict this right.^[297][299]

Cinema

Egyptian cinema became a regional force with the coming of sound. In 1936, Studio Misr, financed by industrialist Talaat Harb, emerged as the leading Egyptian studio, a role the company retained for three decades.^[300] For over 100 years, more than 4000 films have been produced in Egypt, three quarters of the total Arab production.^[301][302] Egypt is considered the leading country in the field of cinema in the Arab world.^[303] Actors from all over the Arab world seek to appear in the Egyptian cinema for the sake of fame. The Cairo International Film Festival has been rated as one of 11 festivals with a top class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers’ Associations.^[304]

The number of cinemas increased with the emergence of talking films, and reached 395 in 1958. This number began to decline after the establishment of television in 1960 and the establishment of the public sector in cinemas in 1962, and reached 297 in 1965, then to 141 in 1995 due to the circulation of films through video equipment though the boom of the film industry in this period. Due to laws and procedures that encouraged investment in the establishment of private cinemas, they increased again, especially in commercial centers, until their number reached 200 in 2001 and 400 in 2009. Over a period of more than a hundred years, Egyptian cinema has presented more than four thousand films.^[305][306]

Music

Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African and Western elements. It has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since antiquity. The ancient Egyptians credited one of their gods Hathor with the invention of music, which Osiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilise the world. Egyptians used music instruments since then.^[307]

Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu al-Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmoud Osman, who influenced the later work of Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Abdel Halim Hafez whose age is considered the golden age of music in Egypt and the whole Arab world. Prominent contemporary Egyptian pop singers include Amr Diab and Mohamed Mounir.

Dances

Today, Egypt is often considered the home of belly dance. Egyptian belly dance has two main styles – raqs baladi and raqs sharqi. There are also numerous folkloric and character dances that may be part of an Egyptian-style belly dancer’s repertoire, as well as the modern shaabi street dance which shares some elements with raqs baladi.

Museums

Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. It has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through so many eras, starting from prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through so many ages such as; Pharonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other ages. Because of this wide variation of ages, the continuous contact with other nations and the big number of conflicts Egypt had been through, at least 60 museums may be found in Egypt, mainly covering a wide area of these ages and conflicts.

The three main museums in Egypt are The Egyptian Museum which has more than 120,000 items, the Egyptian National Military Museum and the 6th of October Panorama.

The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), also known as the Giza Museum, is an under construction museum that will house the largest collection of ancient Egyptian artifacts in the world, it has been described as the world’s largest archaeological museum.^[308] The museum was scheduled to open in 2015 and will be sited on 50 hectares (120 acres) of land approximately two kilometres (1.2 miles) from the Giza Necropolis and is part of a new master plan for the plateau. The Minister of Antiquities Mamdouh al-Damaty announced in May 2015 that the museum will be partially opened in May 2018.^[309]

Festivals

Egypt celebrates many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulid. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint, but are often celebrated by Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Ramadan has a special flavour in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees) and much flare that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt to witness during Ramadan.

The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim (Coptic: Ϭⲱⲙ‘ⲛⲛⲓⲥⲓⲙ shom en nisim) has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.

Cuisine

Egyptian cuisine is notably conducive to vegetarian diets, as it relies heavily on legume and vegetable dishes. Although food in Alexandria and the coast of Egypt tends to use a great deal of fish and other seafood, for the most part Egyptian cuisine is based on foods that grow out of the ground. Meat has been very expensive for most Egyptians throughout history, so a great number of vegetarian dishes have been developed.

Some consider kushari (a mixture of rice, lentils, and macaroni) to be the national dish. Fried onions can be also added to kushari. In addition, ful medames (mashed fava beans) is one of the most popular dishes. Fava bean is also used in making falafel (also known as «ta’miya»), which may have originated in Egypt and spread to other parts of the Middle East. Garlic fried with coriander is added to molokhiya, a popular green soup made from finely chopped jute leaves, sometimes with chicken or rabbit.

Sports

Football is the most popular national sport of Egypt. The Cairo Derby is one of the fiercest derbies in Africa, and the BBC picked it as one of the 7 toughest derbies in the world.^[310] Al Ahly is the most successful club of the 20th century in the African continent according to CAF, closely followed by their rivals Zamalek SC. They’re known as the «African Club of the Century». With twenty titles, Al Ahly is currently the world’s most successful club in terms of international trophies, surpassing Italy’s A.C. Milan and Argentina’s Boca Juniors, both having eighteen.^[311]

The Egyptian national football team, known as the Pharaohs, won the African Cup of Nations seven times, including three times in a row in 2006, 2008, and 2010. Considered the most successful African national team and one which has reached the top 10 of the FIFA world rankings, Egypt has qualified for the FIFA World Cup three times. Two goals from star player Mohamed Salah in their last qualifying game took Egypt through to the 2018 FIFA World Cup.^[312] The Egyptian Youth National team Young Pharaohs won the Bronze Medal of the 2001 FIFA youth world cup in Argentina. Egypt was 4th place in the football tournament in the 1928 and the 1964 Olympics.

Squash and tennis are other popular sports in Egypt. The Egyptian squash team has been competitive in international championships since the 1930s. Amr Shabana and Ramy Ashour are Egypt’s best players and both were ranked the world’s number one squash player. Egypt has won the Squash World Championships four times, with the last title being in 2017.

In 1999, Egypt hosted the IHF World Men’s Handball Championship, and hosted it again in 2021. In 2001, the national handball team achieved its best result in the tournament by reaching fourth place. Egypt has won in the African Men’s Handball Championship five times, being the best team in Africa. In addition to that, it also championed the Mediterranean Games in 2013, the Beach Handball World Championships in 2004 and the Summer Youth Olympics in 2010.
Among all African nations, the Egypt national basketball team holds the record for best performance at the Basketball World Cup and at the Summer Olympics.^[313][314] Further, the team has won a record number of 16 medals at the African Championship.

Egypt has taken part in the Summer Olympic Games since 1912 and has hosted several other international competitions including the first Mediterranean Games in 1951, the 1991 All-Africa Games, the 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup and the 1953, 1965 and 2007 editions of the Pan Arab Games.

Egypt featured a national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 CAVB Beach Volleyball Continental Cup in both the women’s and the men’s section.^[315]

See also

• Index of Egypt-related articles
• Outline of ancient Egypt
• Outline of Egypt

Notes

References

External links

Government

• Egypt Information Portal (Arabic, English)
• Egypt Information and Decision Support Center (Arabic, English)
• Egypt State Information Services (Arabic, English, French)
• Egyptian Tourist Authority

General

• Country Profile from the BBC News
• Egypt. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Egypt profile from Africa.com
• Egypt web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
• Egypt news Archived 28 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine
• Egypt profiles of people and institutions provided by the Arab Decision project

Trade

• World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Egypt

Coordinates: 26°N 30°E / 26°N 30°E

Officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Egypt is in North Africa. Its Sinai Peninsula acts as a land bridge in Southwest Asia. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country. Egypt is a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Islamic world. Its area is about 1,010,000 sq. km and is bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel in the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, Libya to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north.

Egypt has 99,375,741 million people, making it one of Africa’s most populous nations. Most live near the Nile River’s banks. This is where the agricultural land is found. The Sahara Desert areas are not populated. Half of the country’s population lives in urban areas, the largest of which are Cairo and Alexandria.

Egypt’s ancient civilization is well known and produced famous monuments like the Great Sphinx and the Giza pyramids. Archaeologists study ancient ruins such as Memphis, Thebes, the Valley of the Kings, and Karnak. The world’s major museums contain artifacts from these sites. Egypt is one of the Middle East’s important cultural and political nations.

The economy is one of the Middle East’s most diversified and includes tourism, industry, agriculture, and service at almost equal rates in productions. The economy is developing due to stability, trade, market liberalization, and law encouraging investment.

Etymology

Kemet is the country’s original name. This means “black land” and refers to the Bile flood plains fertile soil. This is distinct from the deshret, the red desert sands. In the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, it is kimi and kima and Xnuia in early Greek. Ta-Sheme’aw and Ta-Mehew were the names of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Misr is the official, modern name of Egypt. This comes directly from Semitic words meaning “the two straits.” Egypt, the English name, comes from Middle French, Latin, ancient Greek, and Lenear, an earlier language.

History

Pre-historic Egypt

Rock carvings exist along the terraces of the Nile and in desert oases. A culture of hunter-gatherers replaced a grain grinding culture in the 10th millennium BC. Around 8,000 BC, lands began to deteriorate due to climate changes or overgrazing, forming the Sahara. Tribal people then migrated to the Nile River and began an agricultural economy.

Neolithic culture was based in the Nile Valley in 6,000 BC. Several predynastic cultures existed around this time in Upper and Lower Egypt. The precursors to the Egyptian dynastic civilization are the Badarian culture and the Nagada. Merimda is the earliest Egyptian site and predates the Badarian by 700 years. The Upper and Lower civilizations coexisted but remained mostly separate. They did frequently trade. The first hieroglyphic inscriptions are dated from the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery dating to 3200 BC.

Ancient Egypt

Around 3150 BC, King Menes founded a unified kingdom. This led to a series of ruling dynasties that lasted the next 3,000 years. The unified country was known as tawy, meaning two lands. Later, the term kemet referred to the black soil of deposited by the Nile River. Culture flourished at this time. Egypt was united by the first two ruling dynasties and set the stage for the Old Kingdom period from 2700-2200 BC. This era was famous for its pyramids, especially the Third Dynasty’s pyramid of Djoser and the Giza Pyramids in the Fourth Dynasty. The Great Sphinx and Pyramids of Giza are the basis of Egypt’s modern tourist industry.

150 years of political upheaval began with the First Intermediate Period. Prosperity came back after stronger Nile floods and government stabilization during the Middle Kingdom around 2040 BC. This peaked during Pharaoh Amenemhat III’s reign. An additional period of upheaval led to the first foreign dynasty, the Semitic Hyksos, ruling Egypt. Around 1650 BC, the invaders conquered much of Lower Egypt. They founded a new capital at Avaris. Ahmose I led an Upper Egyptian force that pushed them out. The Eighteenth Dynasty was then founded and the capital was moved to Thebes from Memphis.

The Eighteenth Dynasty began the New Kingdom and Egypt became a world power as it extended the empire south to Tombos in Nubia. It lasted from 1550-1070BC. The most well known pharaohs ruled during this period, such as Thutmose III, Akhenaten, Hatshepsut, Nefertiti, Tutankhamin, and Ramesses II. Atenism was the first historically known expression of monotheism. Contact with other areas brought the New Kingdom new ideas. The Libyans, Assyrians, and Nubians later invaded Egypt, but were driven out eventually.

Persian, Greek, and Roman Occupation

The last native ruling dynasty was the 13th. The Persians defeated it in 343 BC after King Nectanedo II failed to defend Egypt. Egypt later fell to Greco-Macedonians and Romans. This began 2,000 years of foreign rule. Cleopatra VII was the last ruler from the Ptolemaic line. She committed suicide with Marc Antony, her lover, after being captured by Caesar Augustus.

Saint Mark the Evangelist brought Christianity to Egypt before Byzantine rule in the 1st century AD. Roman rule transitioned to Byzantine during Diocletian’s rule. A number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted around this time. By then, there had been a translation of the New Testament into Egyptian. In 451 AD, an Egyptian Coptic Church was established after the Council of Chalcedon.

Arab and Ottoman Conquest

In the 7th century, the Byzantines were able to regain control after a Persian invasion. Egypt was absorbed into the Islamic Empire by Muslim Arabs in 639 AD. After the Byzantine defeat, the Arabs brought Sunni Islam to Egypt. Egyptians began to combine Islam with their indigenous practices. This led to various Sufi sects that survive to this day.

Muslim rulers controlled Egypt for another six centuries. They were nominated to lead by the Islamic Caliphate. Cairo was the seat of the Fatimids’ Caliphate. When the Kurdish Ayyubid dynasty ended, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, controlled the country in 1250 AD. Around that time, the country linked India, Malaya, the Red Sea, and the East Indies. A productive economy resulted from the strategic positioning. The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in 1517 and incorporated it into the Ottoman Empire. 40 percent of the country died in the 14th century’s black death.

The Egyptian system declined after the 15th century due to threats from Mongols and European Crusaders. Militarization strained the economy and civil society. The effects of the Black Death and economic decline left the country open to invasion. From 1687 to 1731, there were six famines. A famine in 1784 killed one-sixth of Egypt’s population.

Modern History

Napoleon Bonaparte briefly invaded Egypt in 1798. Mamluks, along with the British, repelled the invasion in 1801. Four years followed where Mamluks, Albanians, and Ottomans fought for power. An Albanian commander, Mohammad Ali became the dominant figure. The Sultan in Istanbul recognized him as viceroy in 1805. Despite the recognition, Ottomans no longer had power in Egypt. Muhammad Ali established a ruling dynasty that lasted until 1952.

He annexed Northern Sudan, Syria, and parts of Anatolia and Arabia. In 1841, European powers stopped his conquests. He was forced to return the new lands to the Ottomans. He kept Sudan and his title was made hereditary. Muhammad Ali sent out students to learn Western military techniques. This led to development including canals, transportation, and other industries.

Cotton was introduced in 1820 and the Egyptian variety became famous. This changed Egypt to a cash crop culture by the end of the century. This led to land concentration in the hands of a few large landowners and an influx of foreigners came to Egypt to exploit commodity production.

Muhammad Ali’s son, Ibrahim, succeeded him and was followed shortly after by Abbas I, his grandson. He was followed by Said and Isma’il. While Abbas I was a cautious leader, Said and Isma’il developed ambitiously and ended up spending beyond their means. In 1869, the Suez Canal was completed in partnership with the French. This cost led to debt and caused unrest due to higher taxes. Isma’il was forced to sell the canal to the British in 1875. This ultimately led to French and British in the Egyptian cabinet. Their financial control made them the true power in the country.

Nationalist groups formed in 1879 due to dissatisfaction with Isma’il and the Europeans. Ahmad Urabi became a prominent figure and in 1882 he headed a nationalist ministry that desired democratic reforms, including parliamentary budget control. The British and French intervened with their military, eventually defeating the Egyptian army at the battle of Tel el-Kebir. The Europeans installed Isma’il’s son, Tewfik, as a figurehead leader. The British were effectively in control.

20th Century

The power arrangement was made official in 1914. The head of state’s title was changed to sultan. This specifically repudiated the claimed power of the Ottoman sultan, who was part of the Central Powers in World War I. Abbas II was deposed and his uncle, Hussein Kamel, became sultan.

Many neutral Egyptians became nationalists after the Dinshaway Incident in 1906. After World War I, the Egyptian nationalist movement was led by the Wafd Party. It gained a majority in the legislature. The British expelled Saad Zaghlul, the Wafd Party leader, and his supporters to Malta on March 8, 1919. The country then experienced its first modern revolution. Due to near constant revolts, Britain declared Egypt’s independence on February 22, 1922.

A new constitution was drafted in 1923 and based it on a parliamentary representative system. Zaghlul was elected Prime Minister. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was finished in 1936. Continued British control and the king’s involvement in politics destabilized the country and led to a coup in 1952. The monarchy was ousted and parliament dissolved. The military leaders, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced the king to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.

A republic was declared on June 18, 1953 with General Muhammad Naguib as its President. In 1954 he was forced to resign and placed under house arrest. Gamal Abdel Nasser, who truly formulated the coup, assumed the presidency in 1956. The British fully withdrew from the Suez Canal Zone that same year. Nasser’s nationalization of the canal prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis.

Nasser died three years after the 1967 Six Day War with Israel. Anwar Sadat succeeded him. Sadat changed Egypt’s cold war alliance from the U.S.S.R. to the United States. He clamped down on secular and religious opposition and started the Infitah economic reforms.

Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack against Israel in 1973 focused on the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. Sadat wanted to initially take territory lost in the prior war and regain the rest diplomatically. Both Cold War powers intervened and two separate U.N. ceasefires brought the war to a halt. While Israel won a military victory, Sadat was able to regain the Sinai from Israel in exchange for peace.

After Sadat’s historic visit to Israel in 1977, Israel agreed to withdraw from the Sinai in exchange for a peace treaty in 1979. This was controversial and led to Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab League. Most Egyptians supported the treaty. In 1981, a fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat. Hosni Mubarak succeeded him. In 203, greater democracy and civil liberties were sought by the Egyptian Movement for Change, better known as Kefaya.

Revolution

Protests against Mubarak began on January 25, 2011 to remove him from power. Civil resistance followed which was supported by a large number of the population. The army did not intervene significantly for either side.

Mubarak fled Cairo and resigned on February 11, 2011. The Egyptian military assumed short-term control. Two days later the military dissolved the parliament and the constitution. A constitutional referendum took place on March 19, 2011 and parliamentary elections were held November 28, 2011. There were few reports of irregularities and turnout was very high. Mohamed Morsi became the new president.The current president is Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, elected in 2014.

Identity

Spanning three thousand years, the Nile Valley is home to one of the world’s oldest cultures. Each successive foreign occupation after 343 BC left marks on the cultural landscape. National identity accommodated Islam, Christianity, and the Arabic language.

In the last century, questions of Egypt’s identity came to the forefront due to the country’s attempts to free itself from foreign rule. Three competing ideologies were secular Arab nationalism, Islamism, and ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism. Under Nasser, Arab nationalism peaked. The current Muslim brotherhood supports Islamism.

Rifa’a et-Tahtawi’s work in the early 19th century started an Egyptian Renaissance. This marked the transition to modern Egypt. His worked revived world interest in Egypt’s antiquity. He co-founded a native Egyptology school along with Ali Mubarak.

This renaissance reached its height in the early 20th century due to people like Ahmed Lufti el-Sayed, Muhammad Abduh, Taha Hussein, Muhammad Loufti Goumah, Tawfiq el-Hakim, Louis Awad, Qasim Amin, Salama Moussa, and Mahmoud Mokhtar. Their liberal path was committed to secularism, personal freedom, and faith in science.

Government

Since June 18, 1953, Egypt has officially been a republic. With the exception of 18 months in 1980, it has been under emergency law since 1967. Hosni Mubarak ruled the country from 1981 to 2011. Ahmed Shafik became Prime Minister on January 29, 2011.

Nubar Pasha was thus the first Prime Minister of Egypt in the modern sense. Prior to that, Egypt had traditional Muslim-style viziers. The current Prime Minister of Egypt is Mostafa Madbouly, since 7 June 2018 and the President is Abdel Fattah el-Sisi.

While technically executive power is divided between the Prime Minister and the President, the President has been in sole control for more than 5 years.

Foreign Relations

Egypt has a moderate foreign policy. Egypt has extensive influence in Africa. Cairo’s position as a commercial and cultural crossroads has led its institutions to be at the center of the area’s cultural and social development.

The Arab League’s headquarters is in Cairo. The League’s Secretary General is typically an Egyptian. The current Secretary General is Amr Moussa, a former Egyptian Foreign Minister. As a protest against Egypt and Israel’s peace treaty, the headquarters was moved to Tunis in 1978 but it returned in 1989.

The country was the first Arab country to establish relations with Israel. Within Egypt, Israel is still considered an enemy. Egypt often acts as a mediator between Arab states and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. It is also a major ally of the U.S.

Former U.N. Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali was an Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister.

Governorates and Regions

There are 29 governorates in Egypt that are divided further into regions. These are formed of towns and villages. Governorates each have a capital.

Cairo and Giza were subdivided in to four governorates in 2008. Luxor was declared an independent governorate in 2009. The governorates are Alexandria, Aswan, Asyut, Beheira, Beni Suef, Cairo, Dakahlia, Damietta, Faiyum, Gharbia, Giza, Helwan, Ismailia, Kafr el-Sheikh, Luxor, Matruh, Minya, Monufia, New Valley, North Sinai, Port Said, Qalyubia, Qena, Red Sea, Sharqia, Sohag, South Sinai, Suez, and 6th of October.

Geography

Egypt has a surface area of 1,001,450 sq. km. It is the 38th largest nation in the world. It is approximately four times the U.K.’s size.

Due to the country’s deserts, the major cities are along the Nile Valley and Delta. 99 percent of the population uses 5.5 percent of the country’s land area. Sudan borders it to the south, Gaza Strip and Israel to the east, and Libya to the west. It has a transcontinental land bridge between Africa and Asia, giving it a strategic location. The Suez Canal connects the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.

In the desert, winds can create sand dunes more than 100 feet high. The country has parts of the Sahara and Libyan Deserts. These are referred to the “red land” in ancient Egypt.

Climate

Egypt received little rain with the exception of the winter. South of the capital, there is only an average of 2 to 5 mm of rainfall per year. There is a very thing strip of coast where ran falls up to 410 mm, mostly between October and March. The Sinai Mountains receive some snow.

Prior to the Aswan Dam’s construction, the Nile River flooded annually. This replenished the spoil and produced consistent harvests. This was known as the Gift of the Nile.

The rising sea levels from climate change could have a major impact in Egypt since its population is mostly in the coastal areas. This could turn millions of Egyptians into refugees.

Demographics

Egypt is the third most populous African country and the most populous in the Middle East with 78,866,635. The population has increased over the last four decades due to agricultural production and medical advances.

90 percent of the population is Muslim, with most of the rest Christian, primarily Coptic Orthodox. Egyptians may also be divided between those in the cities and the farmers.

Egyptians are the largest ethnic group and are 91 percent of the population. Other minorities are Turks, Abazas, Greeks, Bedouin Arab tribes, Berbers, and Nubians. Beja communities are also concentrated in the southeastern corner of Egypt. Dom clans are mostly in the Nile Delta. 2.7 million Egyptians live abroad. 70 percent live in Arab nations. The remaining 30 percent live in Europe and North America.

Refugees numbering between 500,000 and 3 million live in Egypt. 70,000 are Palestinian. Greek and Jewish communities have largely disappeared.

Human Rights

International organizations have criticized Egypt’s human rights record. Mubarak’s 2005 crackdown received criticism. Human Rights Watch has indicated torture and arbitrary detention had occurred.

Women are at a disadvantage legally. Coptic Christians are restricted in their church-building and open worship, but these rules were recently relaxed. Attacks on Christians do still occur. There is also intolerance of Sufis, Shi’a, and Baha’is. The legal system only recognizes Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

In a Freedom House rating the country was rated “Not Free.” The organization did note changes were occurring. The press was deemed “Partly Free.”

One of Egypt’s longest-standing bodies defending human rights is the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR). The National Council for Human Rights was established by the government in 2003. It has a headquarters in Cairo and is led by Boutros Boutros-Ghali, former U.N. Secretary General. Outside organizations claim is serves as a government propaganda tool.

Persecution

In Egypt, Coptic Christians are persecuted at many levels. At the state level there is organized persecution. There are discriminatory laws and judges. There are laws requiring the government’s approval before building a church and the state governor’s approval before any renovations.

Equal opportunities for their promotion and recruitment are denied. Few are appointed to government positions. There are restrictions on the number of Copts in police and military institutions.

In the last 40 years, violence against Copts has increased. Since Mubarak became president there have been 1,500 attacks, leaving thousands of Copts dead or injured. Rarely to the attackers face justice. In 2000 in Elksheh, 20 Copts were killed in the most significant attack. All the assailants were freed.

Economy

The economy depends on media, oil, agriculture, exports, and tourism. The Aswan High Dam’s completion in 1970 changed the Nile’s place in the economy.

The government has not prepared the economy for modern times. Egypt has received an average of $2.2 billion in foreign aid per year from the U.S.

Egypt’s energy market is based on oil, coal, natural gas, and hydroelectric power. In the northeast Sinai there are substantial coal deposits. This is mined at the rate of 600,000 metric tons per year. In the western desert, oil and gas are produced. Egypt’s gas reserves are large.

There has been considerable economic improvement since the government adopted liberal economic policies. The IMF ranked the country one of the worlds best in undertaking economic reforms. Tariffs, customs, and corporate taxes have been reduced.

Foreign investment has increased due to this liberalization. In 2006 it was $6 billion.

Egyptians often criticize the government because basic goods increase in price while their purchasing power stagnates. They often blame corruption as an impediment to wealth. The government has planned infrastructure improvement.

Orascom Group is a good example of an Egyptian company that has expanded globally. Another improving sector is IT, with many start-ups outsourcing to the U.S. and Europe.

Media

The media is influential in the Arab World. The constitution guarantees freedom of the press, but many laws restrict it. After 2005 elections more freedom was declared. Egyptian talk shows air on private channels. Even state channels are criticizing the government.

Religion

Egypt’s state religion is Islam and 90 percent of the population practices the religion. Most of these are Sunni. There are a significant number that follow Sufi orders. A minority of Shi’a live in Egypt.

The call to prayer is heard five times a day in Egypt and regulates business, media, and entertainment activities. The number of mosques in Cairo is well known. There has been some extremism. A court ruling essentially forbids the practice of any religion other than Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.

This ruling forced other religions to either lie or be denied identification cards.

Christian Minority

Christians, mostly practicing the Coptic Orthodox Church, are 10 percent of the population. The constitution requires all laws agree, at least implicitly, with Islamic law. It also bans political parties affiliated with religion. Under the Mubarak government in 2002, Coptic Christmas was recognized as a holiday. There are still few Coptic Christians in the government or police.

Shia Minority

Like the Coptic Christians, the Shi’a minority are often discriminated against. Shi’a students are not admitted into the al-Azhar University in Cairo.

There are two main Shia branches, Ismailis and Imami. There is no way to know the number of Shia due to the hostility against them Egyptian sources admit to only a few thousand in the country. Interestingly, Cairo was founded by Ismaili Shia Fatimids in AD 968.

Other Religious Minorities

A small but significant Baha’i population numbering about 2,000 is present. A small number of Jews also live in Egypt. There are few atheists.

Culture

There is 6,000 years of recorded cultural history. Egypt’s culture influenced later European civilizations and those in Africa and the Middle East. Parts of Egypt’s culture interact with newer influences.

Cairo is Africa’s largest city and is a renowned learning center. The country has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in the Middle East and Africa. Contemporary Arab culture is influenced by Egyptian music, film, television, and literature.

Art and Architecture

Egypt was one of the first civilizations to codify their art and architecture design elements. The wall paintings followed codes of visual rules and meanings. Its pyramids, tombs, and colonnades are renowned. The Pyramid at Djoser is a well-known example and was designed by Imhotep. Others are the Sphinx and the temple of Abu Simbel. There are also diverse modern art works. This includes architecture from Hassan Fathy and Ramses Wissa, sculptures from Mahmoud Mokhtar, and iconography of Isaac Fanous.

Cairo’s Opera House is the main Egyptian performing arts venue. Since the late 19th century, the arts and media industries have grown and there are now more than 30 television channels and over one hundred movies produced yearly. The country is known as the “Hollywood of the Middle East. The Cairo International Film Festival is well respected in the world. Well-known actors, including Omar Sharif, were born in Egypt.

Literature

Egyptian novelists were some of the first to experiment with modern Arabic styles. Their forms have been imitated throughout the Middle East. In 1913, Muhammad Husayn Haykal wrote the first modern Egyptian novel, Zaynab. The first Arabic writer to win the Nobel Prize for Literature was Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz. There are also well-known Egyptian women writers like Nawal El Saadawi and Alifa Rifaat.

Poetry is one of the most well known Egyptian literary genres. Famous poets are Ahmed Fouad Negm, Abdel Rahman el-Abundi, and Salah Jaheen.

Music

The country’s music is a mix of many styles, including indigenous, African, Western, and Mediterranean. Ancient Egyptians played flutes and harps. The ney and oud were indigenous instruments. Vocals and percussion also became important.

Modern music began with the works of Abdu-I Hamuli, Almaz, and Mahmud Osman. These influenced later artists like Umm Kulthum, Sayed Darwish, Abdel Halim Hafez, and Mohammed Abdel Wahab. The country’s pop music has been popular since the 1970s and folk music is used during festivities like weddings. Modern pop artists include Mohamed Mounir and Amr Diab.

Festivals

Egypt’s religious carnivals, known as mulid, and its festivals are well-known. While usually associated with a Coptic or Sufi saint, most Egyptians celebrate them regardless of faith. Ramadan is a particularly large celebration, with Muslim tourists from the region traveling to Egypt to celebrate. Sham en Nisim is an ancient spring festival celebrated for thousands of years.

Sports

Football is the country’s most popular sport. It has many private clubs and has a reputation as a regional powerhouse. Rivalries energize the streets when games are played. The Cairo Derby is one of the fiercest in the world. The country has won many championships, including the Africa Cup of Nations seven times, more than any other country.

Tennis and squash are other popular Egyptian sports. Since the 1930s, the squash team is a well-known international competitor. The best player and three time world open winner is Amr Shabana.

Handball is very popular and its team has won first place in the African Handball Nations Championships five times. It has won second place five times, third place four times, and fourth place twice. In the World Men’s Handball Championships, the team has also placed well.

In 2007, Omar Samra became the first Egyptian to climb Mount Everest. He climbed the mountain from its South face, the same route Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing took in 1953.

Military

Egypt’s military has a total troop strength of approximately 450,000. It has nearly the same number of warplanes as Israel. The number of tanks, warships, artillery, and anti-aircraft batteries far exceeds Israel’s.

Recently, the military has modernized. Egypt is considered to be the second strongest Middle Eastern power behind Israel.

جمهورية مصر العربية Ǧumhūriyyat Maṣr al-ʿArabiyyah Arab Republic of Egypt
Anthem: «Bilady, Bilady, Bilady» «My country, my country, my country»
Capital (and largest city)	Cairo 30°2′N 31°13′E
Official languages	Arabica
Demonym	Egyptian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
—	President	Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
—	Prime Minister	Sherif Ismail
Legislature	Parliament
—	Upper House	Shura Council
—	Lower House	People’s Assembly
Establishment
—	Independence from the United Kingdom	28 February 1922
—	Republican regime	18 June 1953
—	Current Constitution	18 January 2014
Area
—	Total	1,002,450 km² (30th) 387,048 sq mi
—	Water (%)	0.632
Population
—	2011 estimate	81,015,887[1] (16th)
—	2006 census	76,699,427 (total)[2] incl. 3,901,396 abroad
—	Density	Real density:c 2,755.2/km2 (38th) 7,136/sq mi Arithmetic density: 76.3/km² (126th) 197.5/sq mi
GDP (PPP)	2011 estimate
—	Total	$508.265 billion[3]
—	Per capita	$6,361[3]
GDP (nominal)	2011 estimate
—	Total	$231.111 billion[3]
—	Per capita	$2,892[3]
Gini (1999–00)	34.5 (medium)
Currency	Egyptian pound (EGP)
Time zone	EET (UTC+2 (No DST Since 2011))
Internet TLD	.eg, مصر.
Calling code	[[++20]]
a. Literary Arabic is the sole official language. Egyptian Arabic is the national spoken language. Other dialects and minority languages are spoken regionally.

Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country in North Africa that includes the Sinai Peninsula, a land bridge to Asia. Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa. The vast majority of its approximately 80 million people live near the banks of the Nile River where the only arable agricultural land is found. Large areas are part of the Sahara Desert and are sparsely inhabited. Around half of Egypt’s residents live in urban areas.

Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world’s most famous monuments, including the Pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx; the southern city of Luxor contains a particularly large number of ancient artifacts such as the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings.

Today, Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural center of the Middle East. It was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, after the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty. Egypt has a major influence among other Arab states and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute.

Geography

Egypt borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. The northern coast borders the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern coast borders the Red Sea. Egypt’s important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: A transcontinental nation, it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea.

At 386,636 square miles (1,001,450 km²), Egypt is the world’s thirtieth-largest country (after Mauritania). It is comparable in size to Tanzania, twice the size of France, and is more than half the size of the U.S. state of Alaska.

Nevertheless, due to the aridity of Egypt’s climate, population centers are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that approximately 99 percent of the population uses only about 5.5 percent of the total land area.

Apart from the Nile Valley, the majority of Egypt’s landscape is a big, sandy desert. The winds blowing can create sand dunes over one hundred feet high. Egypt includes parts of the Sahara Desert and of the Libyan Desert. These deserts were referred to as the «red land» in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats.

Towns and cities include Alexandria, one of the greatest ancient cities, Aswan, Asyut, Cairo, the modern Egyptian capital, El-Mahalla El-Kubra, Giza, the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, Hurghada, Luxor, Kom Ombo, Port Safaga, Port Said, Sharm el Sheikh, Suez, where the Suez Canal is located, Zagazig, and Al-Minya. Oases include Bahariya, el Dakhla, Farafra, el Kharga, and Siwa.

Protectorates include Ras Mohamed National Park, Zaranik Protectorate and Siwa.

Climate

Egypt receives the least rainfall of any country in the world. South of Cairo, rainfall averages only around 0.1 to 0.2 inches (2 to 5 mm) per year and at intervals of many years. On a very thin strip of the northern coast the rainfall can be as high as 7 inches (170 mm), all between November and March. Snow falls on Sinai’s mountains and some of its middle and coastal cities. Egypt relies on the Nile River for water.

Temperatures average between 80 and 90°F (27-32°C) in summer, and up to 109°F (42°C) on the Red Sea coast. Temperatures average between 55 and 70°F (13-21°C) in winter. A steady wind from the northwest helps hold down the temperature near the Mediterranean coast. The Khamaseen is a wind that blows from the south in Egypt, usually in spring or summer, bringing sand and dust; it sometimes raises the temperature in the desert to more than 100°F (38°C).

History

The Nile Valley has been a site of continuous human habitation since at least the Paleolithic era. Evidence of this appears in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in the desert oases. In the tenth millennium B.C.E., a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 B.C.E. began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara Desert. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.

By about 6000 B.C.E., organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. During the Neolithic, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt, remaining somewhat culturally separate but maintaining frequent contact through trade.

A unified kingdom was founded c. 3150 B.C.E. by King Menes, giving rise to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinct in its religion, arts, language, and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period (c. 2700−2200 B.C.E.), famous for its many pyramids.

The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 B.C.E., reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 B.C.E. They were eventually driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.

The New Kingdom (c. 1550−1070 B.C.E.) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Jebel Barkal in Nubia and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is known for some of the best-known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II. The first known self-conscious expression of monotheism came during this period in the form of Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought in new ideas during the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded by Libyans, Nubians, and Assyrians, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.

Foreign rule

The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 B.C.E. after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks and Romans, beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule. Before Egypt became part of the Byzantine realm, Christianity had been brought by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the first century. Diocletian’s reign marks the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament was by then translated into Egyptian, and after the Council of Chalcedon in 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established.

The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the seventh century, until Egypt was invaded in 639, by the Muslim Arabs. The form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was Sunni, though early in this period Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity, giving rise to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day. Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, including a period for which it was the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, a Turco-Circassian military caste, the Mamluks, took control around 1250 and continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517.

The brief French invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 had a great social impact on the country and its culture. Native Egyptians became exposed to the principles of the French Revolution and had an apparent chance to exercise self-governance. A series of civil wars took place between the Ottoman Turks, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries following the evacuation of French troops, resulting in the Albanian Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) taking control of Egypt, where he was appointed as the Ottoman viceroy in 1805. He led a modernization campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms, and increased industrialization, which were then taken up and further expanded by his grandson and successor, Isma’il Pasha.

Following the completion of the Suez Canal by Ismail in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub. In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt and eventually they came to have an important influence on governmental affairs. The country also fell heavily into debt to European powers. Ostensibly to protect its investments, the United Kingdom seized control of Egypt’s government in 1882. Nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued, however, until 1914. As a result of the outbreak of World War I, Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed the Khedive Abbas II, replacing him with his uncle, Husayn Kamil, who was appointed sultan.

Independence

Between 1882 and 1906, a local nationalist movement for independence had been taking shape and the first political parties were founded. With the end of World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement after gaining a majority in the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta in 1919, Egypt witnessed its first modern revolution. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt’s independence on February 22, 1922.

The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new constitution, in 1923, based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly elected as prime minister of Egypt in 1924, and in 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d’état known as the 1952 Revolution. The officers, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.

The Egyptian Republic was declared on June 18, 1953, with General Muhammad Naguib as the first president. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser—the real architect of the 1952 movement—and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as president and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on June 18, 1956. His nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26, 1956, prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis. Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, in which Israel had invaded and occupied the Sinai Peninsula, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat.

Sadat switched Egypt’s Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisers in 1972, and launched an economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.

In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights in an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured six years earlier. Both the United States and the Soviet Union intervened, and a cease-fire was reached between both sides. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the October War presented Sadat with a political victory that would later allow him to pursue peace with Israel. In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel that led to the 1978 Camp David Accords in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat’s initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt’s expulsion from the Arab League but was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians.

Sadat was assassinated in Cairo by a fundamentalist soldier in 1981, and was succeeded by the incumbent, Hosni Mubarak. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kifaya, was launched to seek a return to democracy and greater civil liberties.

In early 2011, Egypt underwent a revolution, which resulted in the ousting of President Hosni Mubarak after nearly 30 years in power. Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, chairman of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, became the de facto interim head of state. In February 2011, the military dissolved the parliament and suspended the constitution.^[4]

A constitutional referendum was held on March 19, 2011, and on November 28, 2011 Egypt held its first parliamentary election since the previous regime had been in power. Mohamed Morsi was elected president and took office on June 24, 2012.^[5] On August 2, 2012, Egypt’s Prime Minister Hisham Qandil announced his 35 member cabinet comprising 28 newcomers, including four from the Muslim Brotherhood, a move which led to serious concerns that they would impose strict Islamic practices.

On July 3, 2013, the military removed Morsi and his Muslim Brotherhood supporters from power in a coup d’etat and installed an interim government.^[6]

On January 18 2014, the interim government instituted a new constitution following a referendum in which 98.1 percent of voters were supportive. On March 26 2014 Abdel Fattah el-Sisi the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, who at this time was in control of the country, resigned from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election. The poll, held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a landslide victory for el-Sisi, who was sworn into office as President of Egypt on June 8, 2014.

Politics

Egypt has been a republic since June 18, 1953. Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the president and the prime minister, in practice it rested almost solely with the president, who traditionally was elected in single-candidate elections.

In 2005, then President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country’s presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory. Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators. As a result, most Egyptians remain skeptical about the process of democratization and the role of the elections.

The legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); judicial review is by the Supreme Court and Council of State (which oversees the validity of administrative decisions).

Human rights

Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt’s human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations, according to HRW’s 2006 report on Egypt, are routine torture, arbitrary detentions, and trials before military and state security courts. In September 2007, four newspaper editors were sentenced to a year in prison and fines for criticizing the country’s top political leaders.

Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance that put women at a disadvantage have also been cited.

Laws concerning Christians that place restrictions on church building and open worship have been eased recently, but major constructions still require governmental approval and persecution of Christianity by underground radical groups remains a problem. In addition, intolerance of Baha’is and unorthodox Muslim sects remains a problem. The high court of Egypt has outlawed all religions and beliefs except Islam, Christianity, and Judaism.

Egypt is a transit country for women trafficked from Eastern Europe to Israel for the purpose of sexual exploitation; these women generally arrive as tourists and are subsequently trafficked through the Sinai Desert by Bedouin tribes; men and women from Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia are believed to be trafficked through the Sinai Desert to Israel and Europe for labor exploitation; some Egyptian children from rural areas are trafficked within the country to work as domestic servants or laborers in the agriculture industry.

Military

The Egyptian armed forces have a combined troop strength of around 450,000 active personnel. The air force is estimated to have roughly the same number of modern warplanes as the Israeli air force and in general the military has far more Western tanks, artillery, anti-aircraft batteries, and warships than the Israeli Defense Force. The Egyptian military has recently undergone a massive modernization, mostly of the air force. Egypt is the first country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1, and is planning to launch three more spy satellites.

Foreign relations

Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise, and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region’s social and cultural development.

The permanent headquarters of the Arab League is located in Cairo, and the secretary general of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. The Arab League briefly moved out of Egypt to Tunis, in 1978, as a protest at the peace treaty with Israel, but it returned in 1989.

Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty. Egypt has a major influence among other Arab states and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited and recently challenged by ambitious Saudi Arabia and oil-rich Gulf states.

Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as secretary general of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

Egypt is a transit point for cannabis, heroin, and opium moving to Europe, Israel, and North Africa as well as a transit stop for Nigerian drug couriers. There is international concern that it is a money laundering site due to lax enforcement of financial regulations.

Administrative divisions

Egypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are further divided into regions. The regions contain towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital, sometimes carrying the same name as the governorate.

Economy

Egypt’s economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism. There are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf, and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.

In the last thirty years, the government has reformed the highly centralized economy it inherited from President Nasser. In 2005, Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif reduced personal and corporate tax rates, reduced energy subsidies, and privatized several enterprises. The stock market boomed, and GDP grew about 5 percent per year in 2005-06. Despite these achievements, the government has failed to raise living standards for the average Egyptian, and has had to continue providing subsidies for basic necessities. The subsidies have contributed to a growing budget deficit—more than 10 percent of GDP each year—and represent a significant drain on the economy. To achieve higher GDP growth the government will need to continue its aggressive pursuit of reform, especially in the energy sector.

The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States. Its main revenues, however, come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.

Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power. Substantial coal deposits are found in the northeast Sinai and are mined at the rate of about 600,000 tons per year. Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta. Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at over 1.1 million cubic meters in the 1990s, and LNG is exported to many countries.

Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms. Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40 to 20 percent, resulting in a stated 100 percent increase in tax revenue by the year 2006. GDP per capita is $4,200 (2006 est.).

Foreign direct investment (FDI) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures, exceeding $6 billion in 2006. Egypt was slated to overcome South Africa as the highest earner of FDI in Africa in 2007.

Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth. Major reconstruction of the country’s infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired third mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat. This is slated to be pumped into the country’s railroad system, in response to public outrage against the government for disasters, in 2006, that claimed more than a hundred lives.

The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle, and other major corporations. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country’s huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.

Exports—commodities: Crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals. Export partners: Italy 12.2 percent, U.S. 11.4 percent, Spain 8.6 percent, UK 5.6 percent, France 5.4 percent, Syria 5.2 percent, Saudi Arabia 4.4 percent, and Germany 4.2 percent (2006).
Imports: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels
Import partners: U.S. 11.4 percent, China 8.2 percent, Germany 6.4 percent, Italy 5.4 percent, Saudi Arabia 5 percent, France 4.6 percent (2006).

Economy
GDP (2005 est.): $303 billion.
Annual growth rate (2005 est.): 4.8 percent.
Per capita GDP (2005 est.): $4,282.
Natural resources: Petroleum and natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc.
Agriculture: Products—cotton, rice, onions, beans, citrus fruits, wheat, corn, barley, sugar.
Industry: Types—food processing, textiles, chemicals, petrochemicals, construction, light manufacturing, iron and steel products, aluminum, cement, military equipment.
Trade (FY 2005): Exports—$14.3 billion: Petroleum, clothing and textiles, cotton, fruits and vegetables, manufactured goods. Major markets—European Union, U.S., Middle East, Japan. Imports—$24.1 billion: Machinery and transport equipment, petroleum products, livestock, food and beverages, paper and wood products, chemicals. Major suppliers—EU, U.S., Japan.

Demographics

Egypt is the most populous country in the Arab world and the second-most populous on the African Continent. Nearly all of the country’s 80 million people live in Cairo and Alexandria; elsewhere on the banks of the Nile River; in the Nile delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the Suez Canal. These regions are among the world’s most densely populated, containing an average of over 3,820 persons per square mile (1,540 per sq. km.), compared to 181 persons per square mile for the country as a whole.

Small communities spread throughout the desert regions of Egypt are clustered around oases and historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly irrigated land reclaimed from the desert. The proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease, however, as people move to the cities in search of employment and a higher standard of living.

The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people of Hamitic origin. Mediterranean and Arab influences appear in the north, and there is some mixing in the south with the Nubians of northern Sudan. Ethnic minorities include a small number of Bedouin Arab nomads in the eastern and western deserts and in the Sinai, as well as some 50,000-100,000 Nubians clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt.

Approximately 90 percent of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity (primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination). Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin, or farmers of rural villages.

The last forty years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increases in agricultural productivity. Life expectancy is 72 years.

The overall literacy rate for the total population is 71.4 percent (males 83 percent and females 59 percent). Education is free through university and compulsory from ages six through fifteen. Attendance rates for primary and secondary education have strengthened in recent years, and 93 percent of children enter primary school today. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Alexandria University, and the thousand-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world’s major centers of Islamic learning.

Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers. According to the UNDP’s 2004 Human Development Report, there were 89,000 refugees in the country, though this number may be underestimated. There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees, but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested.

The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria, and other cities.

Religion

Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians’ lives. The calls to prayer that are heard five times a day have the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at 90 percent of the population, with the majority being adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam. A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders, and a minority are Shi’ites.

Christians represent 10 percent of the population, most of them members of the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, which has a following of approximately 15 million worldwide; affiliated sister churches are located in Armenia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Lebanon, and Syria.

Al-Azhar University is the oldest Islamic institution of higher studies (founded around 970 C.E.) and is considered by many to be the oldest extant university. According to the constitution, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic laws.

Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by extremist Islamist groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Being the largest religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Christians are the most negatively affected community. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d’état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles in building new or repairing existing churches. The Coptic community has occasionally been the target of hate crimes and physical assaults.

Culture

Egyptian culture has five thousand years of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest civilizations and for millennia, Egypt maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, Egypt itself came under the influence of Greek, Christian, and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of Egypt’s ancient culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture.

When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 B.C.E., each left an indelible mark on the country’s cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate two new religions, Christianity and Islam, and a new language, Arabic.

Egypt’s capital city, Cairo, is Africa’s largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture, and commerce. Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Laureates in Africa and the Arab world.

Renaissance

The work of early nineteenth-century scholar Rifa’a et-Tahtawi gave rise to the Egyptian renaissance, marking the transition from medieval to early modern Egypt. His work renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and exposed Egyptian society to Enlightenment principles. Tahtawi co-founded with education reformer Ali Mubarak a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars who had studied the history, language and antiquities of Egypt.

Arts

The Egyptians were one of the first major civilizations to codify design elements in art. The wall paintings done in the service of the Pharaohs followed a rigid code of visual rules and meanings.

Contemporary Egyptian art can be as diverse as any works in the world art scene. The Cairo Opera House serves as the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital. Egypt’s media and arts industry has flourished since the late nineteenth century, and today there are more than thirty satellite channels. Over one hundred motion pictures are produced each year. Cairo has long been known as the «Hollywood of the Middle East;» its annual film festival, the Cairo International Film Festival, has been rated as one of eleven festivals with a top-class rating worldwide by the International Federation of Film Producers’ Associations.

Literature

Literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of Egypt. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated throughout the Middle East. The first modern Egyptian novel, Zaynab by Muhammad Husayn Haykal, was published in 1913. Novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first Arabic-language writer to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian women writers include Nawal El Saadawi, well known for her feminist activism, and Alifa Rifaat, who also writes about women and tradition. Vernacular poetry is perhaps the most popular literary genre among Egyptians, represented by such luminaries as Ahmed Fuad Nigm (Fagumi), Salah Jaheen, and Abdel Rahman el-Abnudi.

Music

Egyptian music is a rich mixture of indigenous, Mediterranean, African, and Western elements. In antiquity, Egyptians were playing harps and flutes, including two indigenous instruments: the ney and the oud. Percussion and vocal music also became an important part of the local music tradition. Contemporary Egyptian music traces its beginnings to the creative work of people such as Abdu-l Hamuli, Almaz and Mahmud Osman, who influenced the later work of Egyptian music giants such as Sayed Darwish, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab, and Abdel Halim Hafez. These prominent artists were followed later by Amr Diab. He is seen by many as the new age «Musical Legend,» whose fan base stretches all over the Middle East and Europe. From the 1970s onwards, Egyptian pop music has become increasingly important in Egyptian culture, while Egyptian folk music continues to be played during weddings and other festivities.

Festivals

Egypt is famous for its many festivals and religious carnivals, also known as mulids. They are usually associated with a particular Coptic or Sufi saint but are often celebrated by all Egyptians. Ramadan has a special flavor in Egypt, celebrated with sounds, lights (local lanterns known as fawanees), and so much flair that many Muslim tourists from the region flock to Egypt during Ramadan to witness the spectacle. The ancient spring festival of Sham en Nisim has been celebrated by Egyptians for thousands of years, typically between the Egyptian months of Paremoude (April) and Pashons (May), following Easter Sunday.

Cuisine

The most important food item in daily life is the bread loaf. In rural areas, bread is usually baked by women in mud ovens at home. In cities, bread is sold in bakeries. The standard loaf is strictly regulated by the government in terms of weight and price.

The indigenous cuisine relies heavily on legumes. The main national dish is foul. This is a dish of fava beans cooked slowly over low heat and seasoned with salt, lemon, cumin, and oil. It is usually eaten for breakfast. Another common dish is tamiyya or falafel, which is made from crushed fava beans mixed with onions and leeks and fried in oil. Also popular is koshari, a mixture of rice, black lentils, and macaroni covered with tomato sauce and garnished with fried onions. Consumption of meat depends almost entirely on wealth. While well-to-do households eat beef, lamb, poultry, or fish daily, less-affluent families eat animal protein once a week or even once a month.

Sports

Football is the de facto national sport of Egypt. Egyptian soccer clubs El Ahly and El Zamalek are the two most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of longtime regional champions. People fill the streets when their favorite team wins. Egypt is rich in soccer history as soccer has been around for over a hundred years. The country is home to many African championships, such as the African Cup of Dreams.

Squash and tennis are other favorite sports. The Egyptian squash team has been known for its fierce competition in international championships since the 1930s.

Looking to the future

Environmental issues are coming to the fore as Egypt develops. There is concern that oil pollution is threatening the coral reefs, marine habitats, and beaches. Pollutants such as raw sewage, industrial effluents, and agricultural pesticides are affecting the Nile, the main source of water for the whole nation. While the Aswan High Dam was built to control flooding, the river’s water downstream from the dam is increasingly saline because the dam stops the normal flow of water from the Upper (southern) Nile. Furthermore, seepage and evaporation lead to a loss of 14 percent of the water that flows into the reservoir. Sediments from upstream are deposited in the lake, reducing the amount of storage capacity and forcing farmers to use fertilizer to get the same yields as when the river deposited its nutrient-rich sediments on their land. As a result of rapid urbanization, particularly around Cairo, agricultural land is being lost to apartment complexes.

Population pressures and alleviating poverty are perennial issues. Although the incidence of poverty is decreasing overall, the number of poor people continues to increase as the population grows. Egypt has about 10.7 million poor people, and 70 percent of them live in rural areas. Most of the country’s rural poor people live in Upper Egypt, where there are higher rates of illiteracy and infant mortality, poorer access to safe water and sanitation, and larger numbers of underweight children. Women are particularly disadvantaged. About 80 percent of girls are taken out of school before the age of ten to do farm work. One of the greatest constraints hindering agricultural growth and self-sufficiency is availability of irrigated land.

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Adès, Harry. A Traveler’s History of Egypt. Northampton, MA: Interlink Books, 2006. ISBN 978-1566566544.
• Asante, Molefi K. Culture and Customs of Egypt. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0313317408.
• Cutter, Charles H. Africa, 2006. Harpers Ferry, WV: Stryker-Post Publications, 2006. ISBN 978-1887985727.
• de Blij, H.J., Alexander B. Murphy, and Erini H. Fouberg. Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ISBN 978-0471679516.
• Holmes, Martha, Gavin Maxwell, and Tim Scoones. Nile. London: BBC Books, 2004. ISBN 978-0563487135.

External links

All links retrieved September 20, 2017.

• British Broadcasting Corporation. Country Profile Egypt

Egypt, country located in the northeastern corner of Africa. Egypt’s heartland, the Nile River valley and delta, was the home of one of the principal civilizations of the ancient Middle East and, like Mesopotamia farther east, was the site of one of the world’s earliest urban and literate societies. Pharaonic Egypt thrived for some 3,000 years through a series of native dynasties that were interspersed with brief periods of foreign rule. After Alexander the Great conquered the region in 323 bce, urban Egypt became an integral part of the Hellenistic world. Under the Greek Ptolemaic dynasty, an advanced literate society thrived in the city of Alexandria, but what is now Egypt was conquered by the Romans in 30 bce. It remained part of the Roman Republic and Empire and then part of Rome’s successor state, the Byzantine Empire, until its conquest by Arab Muslim armies in 639–642 ce.

Until the Muslim conquest, great continuity had typified Egyptian rural life. Despite the incongruent ethnicity of successive ruling groups and the cosmopolitan nature of Egypt’s larger urban centres, the language and culture of the rural, agrarian masses—whose lives were largely measured by the annual rise and fall of the Nile River, with its annual inundation—had changed only marginally throughout the centuries. Following the conquests, both urban and rural culture began to adopt elements of Arab culture, and an Arabic vernacular eventually replaced the Egyptian language as the common means of spoken discourse. Moreover, since that time, Egypt’s history has been part of the broader Islamic world, and though Egyptians continued to be ruled by foreign elite—whether Arab, Kurdish, Circassian, or Turkish—the country’s cultural milieu remained predominantly Arab.

Egypt eventually became one of the intellectual and cultural centres of the Arab and Islamic world, a status that was fortified in the mid-13th century when Mongol armies sacked Baghdad and ended the Abbasid caliphate. The Mamluk sultans of Egypt, under whom the country thrived for several centuries, established a pseudo-caliphate of dubious legitimacy. But in 1517 the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluks and established control over Egypt that lasted until 1798, when Napoleon I led a French army in a short occupation of the country.

The French occupation, which ended in 1801, marked the first time a European power had conquered and occupied Egypt, and it set the stage for further European involvement. Egypt’s strategic location has always made it a hub for trade routes between Africa, Europe, and Asia, but this natural advantage was enhanced in 1869 by the opening of the Suez Canal, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. The concern of the European powers (namely France and the United Kingdom, which were major shareholders in the canal) to safeguard the canal for strategic and commercial reasons became one of the most important factors influencing the subsequent history of Egypt. The United Kingdom occupied Egypt in 1882 and continued to exert a strong influence on the country until after World War II (1939–45).

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In 1952 a military coup installed a revolutionary regime that promoted a combination of socialism and Pan-Arab nationalism. The new regime’s extreme political rhetoric and its nationalization of the Suez Canal Company prompted the Suez Crisis of 1956, which was only resolved by the intervention of the United States and the Soviet Union, whose presence in the Mediterranean region thereafter kept Egypt in the international spotlight.

During the Cold War, Egypt’s central role in the Arabic-speaking world increased its geopolitical importance as Arab nationalism and inter-Arab relations became powerful and emotional political forces in the Middle East and North Africa. Egypt led the Arab states in a series of wars against Israel but was the first of those states to make peace with the Jewish state, which it did in 1979.

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Egypt’s authoritarian political system was long dominated by the president, the ruling party, and the security services. With opposition political activity tightly restricted, decades of popular frustration erupted into mass demonstrations in 2011. The uprising forced Pres. Hosni Mubarak to step down, leaving a council of military officers in control of the country. Power was transferred to an elected government in 2012, and a new constitution was adopted at the end of the year. This elected government, however, was toppled a year later when the military intervened to remove the newly elected president, Mohamed Morsi, a member of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood, following a series of massive public demonstrations against his administration. (For a discussion of unrest and political change in Egypt in 2011, see Egypt Uprising of 2011.)

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus called Egypt the “gift of the Nile.” Indeed, the country’s rich agricultural productivity—it is one of the region’s major food producers—has long supported a large rural population devoted to working the land. Present-day Egypt, however, is largely urban. The capital city, Cairo, is one of the world’s largest urban agglomerations, and manufacturing and trade have increasingly outstripped agriculture as the largest sectors of the national economy. Tourism has traditionally provided an enormous portion of foreign exchange, but that industry has been subject to fluctuations during times of political and civil unrest in the region.

Derek Hopwood Charles Gordon Smith Arthur Eduard Goldschmidt The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Since the moment of creation, a mysterious land with ever more mysterious people chooses to change the way of life and drive humanity into a new age of evolution and advances for the purpose of creating heaven on earth. Egypt is a true miracle by all standards that we’re able to stand the test of time and chase the horizon of enlightenment. Egypt is truly blessed in every shape and form from geographical position to natural recourses that we’re able to build an immortal civilization the changed the course of time and innovated to the highest level until they were able to catch the stars with their bare hands.

Overview About Egypt History

Egypt is without a doubt of the greatest civilization ever created with a history that dates back to 8000 BC years but all the glory is focused on the last 5170 years when Egypt took its first step and became a unified country under the rule of one king called Menes or Narmer, the founder of the first dynasty. Through the years, Egypt established her repudiation as a powerful kingdom thanks to the annual Nile River flood that acted as the bloodstream and the life bringer of Egypt as the ancient Greek historian Herodotus stated: «Egypt is the Gift of the Nile» which started an agriculture evolution that provided great wealth which acted as fuel for future immortal projects.

For the next three millennia, many great pharaohs of strong men and women worked on driving the country to new heights of wealth and power like Queen Hatshepsut, king Ramsess the great, and more. During this time many great monuments all over the county were constructed and countless beautiful artifacts were created to protect their achievements from oblivion and immortalize their legacy for many generations to come like the great pyramids of Giza, the sphinx, the Abu Simbel temple, Karnak temple, valley of the kings and many more.

After the end of the last native dynasty by the hand of the Persians in 341 BC and soon enough came the Greek, Romans, and Byzantines then came the Coptic era and finally came the Arabs led by Amr Ibn Alas who introduced the religion of Islam and the current language Arabic during the 7th century under the leadership of the Mamluks and the Fatimid who filled the city of Cairo with countless mosques and schools such as Al-Azhar which was the second-largest university in history. The country then became under the rule of the Ottoman Empire in 1517 until the empire fell and the country under British rule in 1882 until it gained its independence in 1922.

-Read more about

—Egypt Civilization

—Egypt Old Kingdom

—Egypt Middle Kingdom

—Egypt New Kingdom

Egypt Location — Where is Egypt

Egypt is an African and Arabian country, located in a very unique location in North Africa and West Asia (Sinai Peninsula). Egypt bordered from the north by the Mediterranean Sea that separates it from Europe, from the east by Palestine, the Red Sea, and the Gulf of Aqaba which separate Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia, from the south by Sudan, and from the west by Libya.

—Read more about Egypt map

The Climate of Egypt

The weather in Egypt is usually hot, dry, and sunny all year long especially during the summer as the temperature could reach 40 C (104 F) but in the winter months from September to April the climate is quite wonderful with low temperatures. The winter months are known to be the best time for tourists to visit Egypt as the climate becomes quite tolerable which create the best atmosphere for checking the various artifacts and monuments of the magical land in Cairo, Alexandria, Luxor, Aswan, and across the red sea in Hurghada and Sharm el sheik.

Egypt from Agriculture Side

Egypt is an agricultural country by nature due to the great Nile River which crosses between all over Egypt from the north to the south and creates a fertile valley using its silt on the river banks where the ancient Egyptians found life and wealth.

Egypt from Industry Side

Egypt is an industrial country where a huge number of factories depend on the martial harvested from the rich agricultural environment of Egypt and from the mines of gold and gemstones. Nowadays Egypt is involved in a number of modern industries while maintaining its roots.

Egypt from Commerce Side

Egypt is a very massive commercial center in the world due to its special location in the world where most of the international commerce cross Egypt from the Suez channel which is considered to be the shortest international commercial way that links the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea, in Addition to Egypt having many ports that facilitate global commerce. Egypt is also involved in every major industrial and commercial activity especially tourism.

Tourism in Egypt

Egypt «Land of Pharaohs» is one of the most important tourist attractions in the entire world, where everyone put it on their travel bucket list. Egypt is one of the oldest and most beautiful countries in the world and the ancient Egyptians were great artists and innovators as shown across all the legendary historical attractions all over the country. Egypt is a true miracle where ancient Egyptians built a great civilization in the Nile valley, filled with a lot of temples, artifacts, and breathtaking monuments to discover them during your Egypt tours.

Historical Tourism in Egypt

Egypt tourist attractions have Two-thirds of the world monuments. Where is the Great Pyramid that’s is one of the seven wonders of the world, the Great Sphinx, historical places in upper Egypt in Luxor, and Aswan where many of the great temples that still stand from 4000 years ago. Many museums all over Egypt contain a lot of rare artifacts, ancient treasures, and mummified bodies for ancient Egyptian Kings.

-Explore also

—Ancient Egyptian Temples

—Ancient Egyptian Tombs

—Luxor Tourist Attraction

—Aswan Tourist Attractions

Cultural Tourism in Egypt

Culture tourism in Egypt is very diverse as many Islamic and Coptic monuments are represented in many places like Salah El-Din Citadel that holds Mohammed Ali mosque, and around it there are many mosques like the mosques of Amr Ibn Alas, Sultan Hassan, the Hanging Church, and many more. And in Alexandria lies the Citadel of Quitbay on the same location of the lighthouse of Alexandria once occupied, which is considered to be one of the largest construction ever created and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

-Explore Also

—Cairo Tourist Attractions

—Alexandria Tourist Attractions

Recreational Tourism in Egypt

Recreational tourism, which is represented in a wonderful beach on both Mediterranean like; Alexandria, North Coast, and Marsa Matrouh on the Mediterranean Sea where the finest climate in summer and nice beaches. 

In the Red Sea like; Hurghada, Marsa Alam, El Gouna, Safaga, and Sharm El-Sheikh where nice tropical climate all over the year; fine in summer, sunny and warm in winter, amazing beaches with white sand, golden sun, and blue sea that spreads magic all across the people, carols reef and rare colorful fish under the sea that surprise all visitors with a whole new underwater universe. Also, there are adventure tours like snorkeling, diving and water sports, Super Safari by quads, and Jeep to discover the western desert and do a little camping within the Bedouin Sahara.

Religious Tourism in Egypt

Egypt is the home of the most important monuments across the course of the three holy religions of the divine across more than 3500 years. Religious tourism is represented in a combination of Islamic, Jewish, and Christian monuments and sacred places in Sinai like El-Tor, Mount Catherine Ben Ezra Synagogue, the hanging church, Abu Serga Church, and more. Egypt is the home to «Al Azhar» the biggest source of Islamic doctrine in the world, and home to students from all over the world that’s come to learn about Islamic knowledge, Ibn Tulan Mosque, Amr Ibn Al-As mosque, and more within the city of minarets.

-Explore Also

—Islamic Sites in Egypt

—Coptic Sites in Egypt

Medical Tourism in Egypt

Medical tourism is represented in Helwan, El Ain El Sokhna, Oasis, Sinai, Hurghada, and Safaga, using black sand and natural spring water which was also used for many medical purposes like recovery from many diseases such as rheumatoid, arthritis, Psoriasis and many other diseases.

If you want to enjoy a fabulous vacation where you will visit all these historical monuments and discover the Ancient Egyptian Civilization, then you can explore our Egypt tour packages or Nile river cruises and choose your own journey.

Egypt is a north-African country with a deep history and heritage of 1000 km along the Nile River. Cairo is the modern capital of Egypt. Africa may have given rise to the first human beings, and Egypt probably gave rise to the first great civilisations, which fascinate modern societies nearly 5,000 years later. From the Library and Lighthouse of Alexandria to the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Ancient Egyptians produced several world wonders, revolutionised architecture and construction, created some of the world’s first systems of mathematics and medicine, and established language and art that spread across the known world. With world-famous leaders like King Tut and Cleopatra, it is no wonder today’s world has many Egyptologists. 

Table Of Contents

1. Geography of Egypt
   • Location of Egypt
   • Regions
   • Nile River
   • Nile Delta
   • Towns in Egypt
   • Sea Islands
   • Oases of Egypt
2. Government
   • Freedom Rating
3. Law
4. Military and foreign relations
   • Military Cooperation with the United States
   • Military Cooperation with Russia
   • Headquarters of the Arab League
   • Middle East mediator
   • Membership in International Institutions
5. History of Egypt
6. Ancient Egyptian Temples
7. Ancient Egyptian Deities
8. Pharaohs of Egypt
9. Egyptian Pyramids
10. Ancient Egyptian tombs
11. Ancient Egyptian Towns
12. Military of Ancient Egypt
13. Museums in Egypt
14. Tourist Activities and Excursions in Egypt
    • Diving
15. Coptic Culture
16. Christian Monuments in Egypt
17. Egyptian Cuisine
18. Climate
    • The Climate of the Northern Parts of Egypt
    • The Climate in the Peninsula of Sinai

Geography of Egypt

Egypt has an area of 1,002,450 km2 (387,050 sq mi), making it the 29th largest country in the world. The geography of Egypt relates to two regions: North Africa and Southwest Asia. Egypt has coastlines on the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. On the other hand, Egypt borders Libya to the west, the Gaza Strip to the northeast, Palestine to the east and Sudan to the south.

Location of Egypt

Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country occupying the northeast corner of Africa and the southwest corner of Asia by the Sinai Peninsula. At the same time, Egypt is a southern Mediterranean country bordering the Mediterranean sea north, the Gaza Strip and Israel northeast. However, Egypt also has coastal borders on the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea to the east. Sudan lies in the south and Libya in the west of the country.

The longest straight-line distance in Egypt from north to south is 1,024 km (636 mi), while east to west measures 1,240 km (770 mi). Egypt has more than 2,900 km (1,800 mi) of coastline on the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, and the Gulf of Aqaba. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of 263,451 km2 (101,719 sq mi).

Due to the extreme aridity of Egypt’s climate, population centres are concentrated along the narrow Nile Valley and Delta, meaning that about 99% of the population uses approximately 5.5% of the total land area. 98% of Egyptians live on 3% of the territory.

Egypt’s important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a transcontinental nation. Libya borders Egypt to the west, Sudan to the south, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. It possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between Africa and Asia, traversed by a navigable waterway (the Suez Canal) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea.

Regions

Apart from the Nile Valley, most of Egypt’s landscape is desert, with a few oases scattered. Winds create prolific dunes that peak over 30 metres (100 ft). Egypt includes parts of the Sahara desert and the Libyan desert. These deserts protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from western threats, and Egyptians referred to it as the “red land” in ancient Egypt.

Nile River

The Nile is a majestic river that flows northwards through Northeastern Africa. This beautiful river snakes through various countries and covers 6,650 km. Most importantly, the Nile River covers the drainage basins of Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Kenya. Also, it covers the basins of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania. Above all, this river is the primary water source for Egypt and Sudan. The Nile River system begins on the East African Plateau and flows to the Mediterranean Sea. Naturally, 20% of the total watercourse goes through the Egyptian territories.

Nile Delta

The Nile Delta is formed in Lower Egypt, where the Nile River spreads and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. It is one of the world’s largest river deltas—from Alexandria in the west to Port Said in the east. It covers 240 km (150 mi) of the Mediterranean coastline and is a rich agricultural region. The Delta is approximately 160 km (99 mi) from north to south. The Delta begins slightly downriver from Cairo.

Towns in Egypt

When we look at the map of the Arab Republic of Egypt, we can find that most of the governorates, towns and cities lie along the Nile River. Furthermore, the Cairo Governorate appears as the capital of Egypt. Worth mentioning that Egypt has more than 200 cities with over 15000 p.

Administratively, the Egyptian authority divides the country into 28 governorates. The President of Egypt appoints a governor to administrate each province.

Sea Islands

Egypt borders the Red Sea in the east and the Mediterranean Sea north. The Red Sea coast stretches 800 km from Suez to the Sudanese border. At the same time, the Mediterranean Sea coast spans about 1,050 km along the northern coast. It extends from the eastern side of the Sinai Peninsula at the Egypt – Gaza frontiers to the western village of Sallum on the Egyptian border with Libya. Indeed, these extended maritime areas have several sea islands. These islands are natural, except for the artificial island in the Gulf of Aqaba.

Oases of Egypt

Egyptian oases are still among the most sacred places globally, each with a unique character. For the best Egypt safari adventure, you can explore the majesty of the desert by camel or jeep, spend a night under the stars, and enjoy a morning dip in the hot springs. Wherever travellers stay, they can enjoy the tranquillity of the Bedouin lifestyle, date woods, pigeon towers, and blue-washed mud houses.

Government

The House of Representatives, whose members are elected to serve five-year terms, specialises in legislation. Elections were last held between November 2011 and January 2012, later dissolved. The next parliamentary election was announced within six months of the constitution’s ratification on 18 January 2014 and was held in two phases, from 17 October to 2 December 2015. Initially, the parliament was to be formed before the President was elected, but interim president Adly Mansour pushed the date. The Egyptian presidential election 2014 took place on 26–28 May 2014. Official figures showed a turnout of 25,578,233 or 47.5%, with Abdel Fattah el-Sisi winning with 23.78 million votes or 96.9%, compared to 757,511 (3.1%) for Hamdeen Sabahi.

After a wave of public discontent with the autocratic excesses of the Muslim Brotherhood government of President Mohamed Morsi, on 3 July 2013, then-General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi announced the removal of Morsi from office the suspension of the constitution. A 50-member constitution committee was formed to modify the constitution, later published for public voting and adopted on 18 January 2014.

Freedom Rating

In 2013, Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt at 5 (with 1 representing the freest and seven the least) and civil liberties at 5, which gave it the freedom rating of “Partly Free”.

Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the 19th century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists and intellectuals until the early 20th century. The lower-middle strata of Egyptian society mainly support the ideology espoused by Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood.

Egypt has the oldest continuous parliamentary tradition in the Arab world. The first popular assembly was established in 1866. It was disbanded due to the British occupation of 1882, and the British allowed only a consultative body to sit. In 1923, however, a new constitution provided for a parliamentary monarchy after the country’s independence was declared.

Law

The legal system is based on Islamic and civil law (particularly Napoleonic codes); and judicial review by a Supreme Court, which accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction only with reservations.

Islamic jurisprudence is the principal source of legislation. Sharia courts and qadis are run and licensed by the Ministry of Justice. Sharia governs the personal status law regulating marriage, divorce and child custody. A woman’s testimony is worth half a man’s testimony in a family court.

On 26 December 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood attempted to institutionalise a controversial new constitution. It replaced the 2011 Provisional Constitution of Egypt, adopted following the revolution. In a referendum held on 15–22 December 2012, with 64% support, only 33% electorate participated.

The Penal code was unique as it contains a “Blasphemy Law.” The present court system allows the death penalty against an absent individual tried in absentia. Several Americans and Canadians were sentenced to death in 2012.

On 18 January 2014, the interim government successfully institutionalised a more secular constitution. The President is elected to a four-year term and may serve two terms. The parliament may impeach the President. Since the constitution took effect, the military can appoint the national Minister of Defence for the successive two full presidential terms. Under the constitution, there is a guarantee of gender equality and absolute freedom of thought. Under the constitution, political parties may not be based on “religion, race, gender or geography”.

Military and foreign relations

The military influences Egypt’s political and economic life and exempts itself from laws that apply to other sectors. It enjoyed considerable power, prestige and independence within the state and was widely part of the Egyptian “deep state”.

Israel speculates Egypt to be the second country in the region with a spy satellite, EgyptSat 1 and EgyptSat 2, launched on 16 April 2014.

Military Cooperation with the United States

The United States provides Egypt with annual military assistance, which in 2015 amounted to US$1.3 billion. In 1989, Egypt was designated as a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Nevertheless, ties between the two countries have partially soured since the July 2013 overthrow of Islamist President Mohamed Morsi. The Obama administration denounces Egypt’s crackdown on the Muslim Brotherhood and cancelling future military exercises involving the two countries.

However, there have been recent attempts to normalise relations between the two, with both governments frequently calling for mutual support in the fight against regional and international terrorism. Following the election of Republican Donald Trump as the President of the United States, the two countries were looking to improve Egyptian-American relations. On 3 April 2017, al-Sisi met with Trump at the White House, marking the first visit of an Egyptian president to Washington in 8 years. Trump praised al-Sisi in what was reported as a public relations victory for the Egyptian President and signalled it was time to normalise the relations between Egypt and the US.

Military Cooperation with Russia

Relations with Russia have improved significantly following Mohamed Morsi’s removal, and both countries have worked since then to strengthen military and trade ties, among other aspects of bilateral cooperation. Relations with China have also improved considerably. In 2014, Egypt and China established a bilateral “comprehensive strategic partnership”. In July 2019, UN ambassadors of 37 countries, including Egypt, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC defending China’s treatment of Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region.

Headquarters of the Arab League

The permanent headquarters of the Arab League lies in Cairo, and the body’s secretary-general has traditionally been Egyptian. Former foreign minister Ahmed Aboul Gheit currently holds this position. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978 to protest the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, but it later returned to Cairo in 1989. Gulf monarchies, including the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, have pledged billions of dollars to help Egypt overcome its economic difficulties since the overthrow of Morsi.

Middle East mediator

Egypt has played a historical role as a mediator in resolving various disputes in the Middle East, most notably its handling of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the peace process. Following the 1973 war and the subsequent peace treaty, Egypt became the first Arab nation to establish diplomatic relations with Israel. Despite that, religiously-motivated people still consider Israel a hostile state by most Egyptians. Egypt’s ceasefire and truce brokering efforts in Gaza have hardly been challenged following Israel’s evacuation of its settlements from the strip in 2005, despite increasing animosity towards the Hamas government in Gaza following the ouster of Mohamed Morsi and despite recent attempts by countries like Turkey and Qatar to take over this role.

Ties between Egypt and non-Arab Middle Eastern nations, including Iran and Turkey, have often been strained. Tensions with Iran are mainly due to Egypt’s peace treaty with Israel and Iran’s rivalry with traditional Egyptian allies in the Gulf. Turkey’s recent support for the now-banned Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and its alleged involvement in Libya made both countries bitter regional rivals.

Membership in International Institutions

Egypt is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It is also a member of the Organisation internationale de la francophonie, since 1983. Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

In 2008, Egypt was estimated to have two million African refugees, including over 20,000 Sudanese nationals registered with UNHCR as refugees fleeing armed conflict or asylum seekers. Egypt adopted “harsh, sometimes lethal” methods of border control.

History of Egypt

The Arab Republic of Egypt, ARE, has one of the most exciting and longest histories globally. The history of Egypt is full of exciting and exciting events. At the same time, it dates from the very early appearance of human civilisation on earth. This history roots back to the 6th – 4th millennia BCE. It is why we consider Egypt the cradle of civilisation! Undoubtedly, the very early history of Egypt refers to the knowledge of urbanisation, agricultural activities, and the ability to have a writing system. Also, it refers to a tendency towards believing and worshipping, and finally, the ability to have a central government.

Ancient Egyptian Temples

The ancient Egyptians built their temples for the official worship of the gods and to commemorate the pharaohs. They made these temples in ancient Egypt and the areas under Egyptian control. According to the ancient Egyptians; believes, these temples were dwellings of the divinities. According to the ancient Egyptian religion, the king of ancient Egypt was the son of the gods. Thus, we may say that the ancient Egyptians also worshipped the pharaoh of Egypt in these temples. The ancient Egyptian priests performed a variety of rituals and festivals inside it.

Ancient Egyptian Deities

Studying ancient Egyptian beliefs is exciting knowledge everyone can add to their minds. Interestingly, many ancient Egyptian deities and myths surrounding them have formed the core of these beliefs. We can define the Ancient Egyptian Deities as those gods and goddesses worshipping in ancient Egypt. These gods’ beliefs and rituals formed the ancient Egyptian religion, which emerged sometime in prehistory.

Pharaohs of Egypt

Native pharaohs continually governed Egypt for approximately 2500 years. The Kingdom of Kush interrupted this continuity of independency rule and conquered Egypt in the late 8th century BC. However, these rulers adopted the traditional pharaonic titulature as the native pharaohs. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt experienced another period of the independent rule before the Achaemenid Empire interrupted it. The Achaemenid rulers also adopted the title of “Pharaoh”. Nectanebo II was the last native pharaoh to rule Egypt before the Achaemenids reoccupied it for a second time.

Egyptian Pyramids

 The Egyptian pyramids are ancient masonry structures located in Egypt. Sources cite at least 118 identified “Egyptian” pyramids. Ancient Egyptians built approximately 80 pyramids within the Kingdom of Kush, now in the modern country of Sudan. At the same time, most of those pyramids in modern Egypt represented tombs for their pharaohs and consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods. 

The earliest-known Egyptian pyramids lay at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. Although archaeologists found at least one step-pyramid-like structure at Saqqara, dating to the First Dynasty. Mastaba 3808 belonged to the reign of Pharaoh Anedjib, with inscriptions and other archaeological remains suggesting there may have been others. The otherwise earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser, built c. 2630–2610 BCE during the Third Dynasty. This pyramid and surrounding complex are generally the world’s oldest monumental structures, constructed of dressed masonry. 

The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several Giza pyramids are counted among the most significant structures ever built. The Pyramid of Khufu is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, despite being the oldest wonder by about 2,000 years. 

Ancient Egyptian tombs

Many years could be spent building and preparing Ancient Egyptian tombs, known to the ancient Egyptians as houses of eternity. Master builders and supervisors were instructed to perform rituals during construction, and guidelines were provided on where to build, design, and materials to use.

Ancient Egyptian Towns

This is a list of known ancient Egyptian towns and cities. The list is for sites intended for permanent settlement and does not include fortresses and other locations of intermittent habitation.

Military of Ancient Egypt

For most parts of its long history, ancient Egypt was unified under one government. The main ancient Egyptian military concern for the nation was to keep enemies out. The arid plains and deserts surrounding Egypt were inhabited by nomadic tribes who occasionally tried to raid or settle in the fertile Nile River valley. Nevertheless, the great expanses of the desert formed a barrier that protected the river valley, and it was almost impossible for massive armies to cross. The Egyptians built fortresses and outposts along the borders east and west of the Nile Delta, in the Eastern Desert, and Nubia to the south. Small garrisons could prevent minor incursions, but a message was sent to the main army corps if a large force was detected. Most Egyptian cities lacked city walls and other defences.

Museums in Egypt

Egypt has one of the oldest civilisations in the world. Accordingly, it has been in contact with many other civilisations and nations and has been through many eras, from the prehistoric age to the modern age, passing through many generations such as; Pharaonic, Roman, Greek, Islamic and many other periods. Because of this wide variation of ages and the continuous contact with other nations, many museums in Egypt cover a wide area of these ages.

Tourist Activities and Excursions in Egypt

Tourists in Egypt choose our group excursions, as this type of excursion, in the first place, saves large sums spent on entertainment during the holiday stay. Usually, we organise these trips on big buses or luxury yachts and cruises. Equally, our tourists receive this excursion service according to the agreed-upon conditions.

Diving

Diving is one of the exciting activities that scuba divers can enjoy in Egypt. Indeed, Egypt is a scuba diver’s paradise, boasting more than 1,800 miles of coastline, crystal clear waters, mysterious wrecks, and a myriad of multicoloured reefs teeming with marine life. Lapped by the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, the ‘Land of the Pharaohs’ has spectacular underwater environments offering some of the best diving in the world.

Coptic Culture

This article deals with the Coptic culture and its effect on Christians living in Egypt. “Copt” refers to the Egyptian Christians evangelised by St. Mark the Apostle in the first century AD. The word probably originates from the old Egyptian word Hwt-Ka-Ptah which means the “House of the God Ptah “. While the Greeks used Aigyptos for Egypt, the Copts used the Coptic term Kyptos.

Christian Monuments in Egypt

The Christian religion holds a fascinating history in Egypt. It has changed and adapted over time but ultimately survived thousands of years. Amid the bustling streets of Cairo and out amid the wind-blown sands of the desert, trippers will still find Christian churches, monasteries, and monuments. Many of these sites are still working and in use. Wherever tourists and pilgrims travel, they will discover Christian monuments in Egypt.

Egyptian Cuisine

Egyptian cuisine makes heavy legumes, vegetables and fruit from Egypt’s rich Nile Valley and Delta. Dishes include rice-stuffed vegetables and grape leaves; hummus, falafel, shawarma, kebab and kofta; ful medames, mashed fava beans, kushari, lentils and pasta; and molokhia, bush okra stew. Pita bread, known locally as Eish Baladi, is a staple of Egyptian cuisine. Cheesemaking in Egypt dates back to Egypt’s First Dynasty, with Domiaty being the most popular cheese today.

Climate

Egypt is a barren desert except for the thin strip of terraced Land along the Nile and the Delta. Generally, the summer is hot and dry, and the winter is mild. Therefore, we can consider that October to April is undoubtedly the best time to travel to Egypt.

The Climate of the Northern Parts of Egypt

However, the climate varies slightly depending on where people live. The northern coast along the Mediterranean Sea receives some of the heaviest rains in the country during the winter months. Nevertheless, thunderstorms with heavy showers often take several hours and are not unusual. Alexandria, Marsa Matruh, and other coastal areas are examples of the previously-mentioned phenomenon. In addition to the previous towns, the Nile Delta can witness this phenomenon. However, hail is common, especially in the desert, where the weather is usually more relaxed. Also, the desert weather allows ice to fall and frost to form on rainy days.

The Climate in the Peninsula of Sinai

There is rain in general in the mountains of Sinai and the Red Sea mountain range. Floods in these areas are a common climate phenomenon where so much rain can fall quickly, along with thunder and lightning. Because of the nature of the desert land, waterfalls from the rain soon through hills, mountains and local flood areas. However, these floods generally occur every three years, depending on the weather. The flood usually occurs in the early season, such as September, October or late winter, February or March. However, those floods disappear for 15 years.

Also, temperatures can drop much more in high altitudes in the Sinai Mountains than in the surrounding areas. Thus. Moreover, it may allow snow in the winter months as temperatures drop below freezing. Also, it forms frosts even in low and attracts desert areas where temperatures are usually more relaxed than in cities.

About Egypt

• Country
• People
• Culture

Despite ranking in the top 30 largest countries with its 1 million square kilometers of land, Egypt is a country that is notorious for its geographic ‘distribution.’  99% of Egypt’s population utilizes only 5% of the total land area but nearly 100% of its aquatic resources as a result of the predominantly barren ecosystem.  The lifeline of some 90 million human beings, the river Nile is the focal point of urban planning, an incredible 6,695 km gift of sustenance for Egypt and three other countries, making it the longest, and arguably most vital, river in the world.

The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of a Sudanese town called Wadi Halfa through a narrow canyon that traverses sandstone and granite cliffs. The northward flowing direction of the river has thus earned Egypt’s southern border the name “Upper Egypt.” Within this stretch of the Nile is the world’s most intensive concentration of temples, tombs and palaces constructed over the span of 4,000 years.  This includes the temples of Abydos, Dendara, Karnak, Esna, Edfu, Kom Ombo, Philae and Abu Simbel, each conceived for their respective deities, further to the tombs in the Theban Necropolis within the Valley of the Kings across the river from Luxor. Absorbing the river-scape from the comfort of a felucca (small sail boat) is the epitome of pleasure, relished by locals and non-locals alike. This is easily arranged in Aswan, and larger Nile cruise boats can provide an even more luxurious experience. As this river continues to flow upwards past major cities and temples, it begins to branch out into a flower-shaped formation known as the Nile delta, covering 240 km of the Mediterranean coastline. Home to 39 million people, this is Egypt’s most agriculturally rich land with some of the most beautiful, soul-rejuvenating nature Egypt has to offer.

Much like the Nile, the Red Sea coast, a once microcosm of the world that hosted sailors from far away lands, has also become a pivotal part of the country. Turquoise waves break against rocky capes and windswept beaches in the foreground of an endless mountain range, a much needed escape for the people of Cairo. The real lure here, especially for the non-locals, are the fabulous island reefs near the resort of Hurghada and the smaller settlements of Port Safaga, El-Quseir and Marsa Alam to the south.  This entire region saw a rapid transformation in the past two decades, catalyzed by surges of annual tourists, with the most notable development being the future construction of Egypt’s new capital city near this coastline. These destinations pack a powerful punch when it comes to travel-seeking vacationers.  Shark-diving, snorkeling, and kite-surfing are complemented by the revitalizing effects of 18-hole golf courses, private beaches, open-air cinemas, and unrivaled night life scenes.

A tribute to its elusive splendor, the Egyptian landscape is quite remarkable, especially considering it’s a country composed mostly of sand and dust

A democratic republic of blended ethnicities, Egypt is divided into 26 governorates consisting of towns, cities and villages. Currently, Egypt is home to some 90 million Egyptians that are (almost) equally split between urban and rural-dwelling citizens, concentrated near the banks of the Nile in the major cities of Cairo, Luxor, Aswan and Port Said. A very provincial people, Egyptians have always had deep-rooted ties to their places of origin, so much so that even those who live abroad always return to the exact same town they had previously built a life in. It’s almost as if moving elsewhere is not an option. From this emerges the unparalleled warmth and intangible ‘closeness’ that exists between the people of this country, even in times of distress. A truly, unforgettably welcoming people.

Although, as descendants of one of the world’s oldest civilizations, Egypt has influenced and been influenced by thousands of years of civilization. A large and unfortunate part of this past constituted of many conflicts, ranging from Pharaonic rule and Roman invasions to colonialism and war. This has been reflected in the country’s cultural diversity, with foreign languages such as English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish being widely spoken amongst different circles in society. This applies to just about all other facets of life, where everything from cuisine to art to literature exist as an amalgam of diversity, a residual of foreign lands. This has allowed society to cater to a wide spectrum of individuals regardless of class, from the religious man to the thrill-seeking ‘party animal.” The Egyptian people are continuously evolving, challenged by the opposing forces of tradition and modernization.

Consequently, having survived thousands of years as a key economic and political hub in the region, Egyptians themselves have become a fusion of the human race and view themselves differently as a result. Despite that Egypt’s minorities, consisting of Nubians, Bedouins, Turks, Greeks and several others, constitute less than 5% of Egypt’s population, the other 95% of Egyptians are themselves only 17% Arab, proven through sophisticated DNA analysis. In other words, Egypt is as much a part of the world as the world is of Egypt. Perhaps a subconscious driver behind the astonishingly unique culture Egyptians have constructed over the course of their history, Egyptians do not identify as Arabs, much like their DNA, but as something much more complex. As noted by British officers during the times of colonial rule, the very meaning of being Egyptian is so heavily entrenched within the very cores of the people that even upon being invaded by multiple countries, the Egyptian identity remained impressively intact; an identity that, in a way, lends itself to every corner of the globe.

Egyptian culture dates back thousands of years to the ancient Pharaohs and has been influenced by numerous invaders throughout history. Without a doubt, this colonialist footprint has blended with the country’s rich tradition to define Egyptian culture as we know it today.

Food-based gatherings are in fact one of the main social pillars of Egyptian culture with roundtable family feasts at its forefront. The local palette is geared heavily towards legumes and rice with onions, garlic and plenty of spices. There’s nothing quite like filling up on the delicious national cuisine, including foul, ta’miyah, and koshari, while basking in the hospitality of the locals, be it in the city or a Bedouin camp in Aswan. Take a stroll on the Corniche in Zamalek and stop by any of the numerous Nile cruise boats. Authentic oriental dishes are served against an unbeatable backdrop of dancing city lights and shimmering water, enriched by a gentle breeze. If you’re able to head north to Alexandria, then seafood is just what the doctor ordered. With the Mediterranean Sea just inches away, salt water fish and crustaceans are a dime a dozen. Select your fish and your favorite cooking style, and enjoy a seat by the window where you can watch small boats sail in and out of the marina while the sun sets in the distance on the Mediterranean.

Egypt is also well known for its captivating entertainment. Belly dancing, or oriental dancing as it’s formally known, is a longstanding part of Egyptian culture permeating all facets of life, from cabarets to the most extravagant weddings. These cultural performances extend to the Sufi whirling dervishes and the famous tanoura. Originally a means to gain higher spiritual awareness, this display of dazzling, brightly colored skirts spinning to the hypnotic pulse of the music is guaranteed to mesmerize. The Egyptian’s love of the performing arts even transcends into the world of live Arabic music concerts in the arching halls of the Cairo Opera House and the Sayed Dervish Theatre in Alexandria, where the beat of the tablah, or drum, reverberates into the depths of your bones.

In keeping with the oriental rhythm, Egyptians speak the official language, Arabic. While modern standard Arabic is used in television, government speeches, and educational institutions, Egyptian ‘colloquial’ Arabic is the common form that is universally understood, especially across the Middle East due to Egypt’s prominence in the film industry. Within Egyptian Arabic, a number of different vernaculars exist, still fairly discernable but with a twist. The Bedouin of Sinai have their own dialect that differs from those of the Western Desert. There are also minor linguistic groups, such as that of the Nubians, who speak Eastern Sudanic languages, and other minorities such as Greek and Armenian which have undoubtedly shrunk over time.

Much like the official language, Egyptians across the country share a very similar trait; their friendliness. Egyptians are a very warm, sociable people who are always ready to strike up a conversation. They will offer you directions or assistance whether or not you asked for it, and will go out of their way to take you where you need to be. If you’re invited over to an Egyptian’s house for anything ranging from snacks to a six-course meal, don’t expect to finish off your plate so easily as your generous hosts can refill faster than you can eat. If you truly want to experience Egypt, then you absolutely must mingle with the locals to learn the meaning of the expression “a home away from home”.

Egypt’s culture has so much to offer both locals and visitors who are looking to experience its charm. Whether you’re interested in its ancient history or simply looking for an adventure, this place, and its people, are sure to captivate your very existence.

About Egypt

Egypt is probably the world’s oldest civilization having emerged from the Nile Valley around 3,100 BC, historically. Egypt is probably one of the oldest vacation spots. Early Greeks, Romans and others went there just for fun, and to see the wonders of some of mankind’s earliest triumphs. But Egypt is much more than Pyramids and monuments. It is also Red Sea scuba diving, hot night spots, luxury hotels and five star restaurants. It is romantic cruises down the Nile on festive river boats, a night at the grand opera and it is a cultural experience like none you have ever experienced. Egypt is a land bustling with life, sound, visual beauty and excitement. More than anything else, we want you to think of Egypt as fun. For thousands of years, it has been the playground of emperors and kings, and we hope you will take the time to find out why.

The Flag of Egypt

The first national flag of modern Egypt was established by a Royal Decree in 1923 when Egypt gained conditional independence from Great Britain in 1922. The color was green with a white crescent and three stars in the middle. In 1958, a Presidential Decree established a new flag for the United Arab Republic which comprised a merger of Syria and Egypt. The new flag had three colors: red, white with 2 green stars and black. The flag was rectangular in shape and the width was one-third of its length. In 1972, the Law was amended to change the flag. The stars were removed from the flag and replaced by a golden hawk. In 1984, the hawk was replaced by a golden eagle on the eagle of Saladdin, the Ayubbid Sultan who ruled Egypt and Syria in 12th Century, the same Saladdin of the Crusades.

Color Symbolism

The color red refers to the period before 1952 Revolution which brought a group of army officers to power after deposing King Farouk, then King of Egypt. This was a period characterized by the struggle against the British occupation of the country. The white symbolizes the advent of the 1952 Revolution which ended the monarchy without bloodshed. The color black symbolizes the end of the opression of the people of Egypt at the hands of the Monarchy and British colonialism.

Rules Governing the Hoisting of the Flag

The national flag is hoisted on all governmental buildings on Fridays, official holidays, on the inauguration of the Peoples Assembly session and other occasions on which the Minister of Interior orders that the flag be hoisted. The flag is hoisted daily on border posts and customs buildings. It is also hoisted on Egyptian consulates and embassies overseas on the National Day and other national occasions, as well as during the visit of the President to the country hoisting the diplomatic mission.

Penal Provisions for Contempt of the Flag

Abusing the flag in any way is a criminal offense and is punishable under law as it implies contempt of the power of the state. Penal provisions also govern abuse of foreign flags or national emblems of other countries.

The National Anthem (Hear it)

My homeland, my homeland, my hallowed land,
Only to you, is my due hearty love at command,
My homeland, my homeland, my hallowed land,
Only to you is my due hearty love at command,
Mother of the great ancient land,
My sacred wish and holy demand,
All should love, awe and cherish thee,
Gracious is thy Nile to humanity,
No evil hand can harm or do you wrong,
So long as your free sons are strong,
My homeland, my homeland, my hallowed land,
Only to you, is my due hearty love at command.

Words and Music by Sayed Darwish. This national anthem was adapted after 1979. Prior to that, the National Anthem was «Walla Zaman Ya Selahy» (Oh, My Weapon) with words by Salah Shahyrn and Music by Kamal Atawyl.

Overview of Egypt

The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world’s great civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C. and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt’s government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure.

Location:	Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula
Geographic coordinates:	27 00 N, 30 00 E
Map references:	Africa
Area:	total: 1,001,450 sq km land: 995,450 sq km water: 6,000 sq km
Area — comparative:	slightly more than three times the size of New Mexico
Land boundaries:	total: 2,665 km border countries: Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 266 km, Libya 1,115 km, Sudan 1,273 km
Coastline:	2,450 km
Maritime claims — as described in UNCLOS 1982 (see Notes and Definitions):	territorial sea: 12 NM continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation contiguous zone: 24 NM exclusive economic zone: 200 NM
Climate:	desert; hot, dry summers with moderate winters
Terrain:	vast desert plateau interrupted by Nile valley and delta
Elevation extremes:	lowest point: Qattara Depression -133 m highest point: Mount Catherine 2,629 m
Natural resources:	petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, phosphates, manganese, limestone, gypsum, talc, asbestos, lead, zinc
Land use:	arable land: 2.85% permanent crops: 0.47% other: 96.68% (1998 est.)
Irrigated land:	33,000 sq km (1998 est.)
Natural hazards:	periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods, landslides; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms, sandstorms
Environment — current issues:	agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining the Nile and natural resources
Environment — international agreements:	party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Geography — note:	controls Sinai Peninsula, only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls Suez Canal, a sea link between Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics; dependence on upstream neighbors; dominance of Nile basin issues; prone to influxes of refugees

Population:	76,117,421 (July 2004 est.)
Age structure:	0-14 years: 33.4% (male 13,038,369; female 12,418,254) 15-64 years: 62.2% (male 23,953,949; female 23,419,418) 65 years and over: 4.3% (male 1,407,248; female 1,880,183) (2004 est.)
Median age:	total: 23.4 years male: 23 years female: 23.8 years (2004 est.)
Population growth rate:	1.83% (2004 est.)
Birth rate:	23.84 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)
Death rate:	5.3 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)
Net migration rate:	-0.22 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.)
Sex ratio:	at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2004 est.)
Infant mortality rate:	total: 33.9 deaths/1,000 live births female: 33.12 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) male: 34.64 deaths/1,000 live births
Life expectancy at birth:	total population: 70.71 years male: 68.22 years female: 73.31 years (2004 est.)
Total fertility rate:	2.95 children born/woman (2004 est.)
HIV/AIDS — adult prevalence rate:	less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS — people living with HIV/AIDS:	8,000 (2001 est.)
HIV/AIDS — deaths:	NA
Nationality:	noun: Egyptian(s) adjective: Egyptian
Ethnic groups:	Eastern Hamitic stock (Egyptians, Bedouins, and Berbers) 99%, Greek, Nubian, Armenian, other European (primarily Italian and French) 1%
Religions:	Muslim (mostly Sunni) 94%, Coptic Christian and other 6%
Languages:	Arabic (official), English and French widely understood by educated classes
Literacy:	definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 57.7% male: 68.3% female: 46.9% (2003 est.)

Country name:	conventional long form: Arab Republic of Egypt conventional short form: Egypt local short form: Misr former: United Arab Republic (with Syria) local long form: Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah
Government type:	republic
Capital:	Cairo
Administrative divisions:	26 governorates (muhafazat, singular — muhafazah); Ad Daqahliyah, Al Bahr al Ahmar, Al Buhayrah, Al Fayoum, Al Gharbiyah, Al Iskandariyah, Al Isma’iliyah, Al Jizah, Al Minufiyah, Al Minya, Al Qahirah, Al Qalyubiyah, Al Wadi al Jadid, Ash Sharqiyah, As Suways, Aswan, Asyut, Bani Suwayf, Bur Sa’id, Dumyat, Janub Sina’, Kafr ash Shaykh, Matruh, Qina, Shamal Sina’, Suhaj
Independence:	28 February 1922 (from UK)
National holiday:	Revolution Day, 23 July (1952)
Constitution:	11 September 1971
Legal system:	based on English common law, Islamic law, and Napoleonic codes; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations
Suffrage:	18 years of age; universal and compulsory
Executive branch:	chief of state: Currently there is no Chief of State, as elections will be held in September 2011. Until February 11, 2011 it was President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (since 14 October 1981). head of government: Prime Minister Essam Sharaf cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president elections: president nominated by the People’s Assembly for a six-year term, the nomination must then be validated by a national, popular referendum; national referendum last held 26 September 1999 (next to be held NA October 2005); prime minister appointed by the president
Legislative branch:	bicameral system consists of the People’s Assembly or Majlis al-Sha’b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms) and the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura — which functions only in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve six-year terms) elections: People’s Assembly — three-phase voting — last held 19 October, 29 October, 8 November 2000 (next to be held NA November 2005); Advisory Council — last held May-June 2001 (next to be held NA 2007) election results: People’s Assembly — percent of vote by party — NDP 88%, independents 8%, opposition 4%; seats by party — NDP 398, NWP 7, Tagammu 6, Nasserists 2, LSP 1, independents 38, undecided 2; Advisory Council — percent of vote by party — NDP 99%, independents 1%; seats by party — NA
Judicial branch:	Supreme Constitutional Court
Political parties and leaders:	Liberal Party or LSP [leader NA]; Nasserist Arab Democratic Party or Nasserists [Dia’ al-din DAWUD]; National Democratic Party or NDP [President Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK] — governing party; National Progressive Unionist Grouping or Tagammu [RIfaat EL-SAID]; New Wafd Party or NWP [No’man GOMA]; Socialist Liberal Party or Al-Ahrar [Hilmi SALIM] note: formation of political parties must be approved by the government
Political pressure groups and leaders:	despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal Muslim Brotherhood constitutes MUBARAK’s potentially most significant political opposition; MUBARAK tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but moved more aggressively since then to block its influence; civic society groups are sanctioned, but constrained in practical terms; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned
International organization participation:	ABEDA, ACC, ACCT, AfDB, AFESD, AMF, AU, BSEC (observer), CAEU, EBRD, FAO, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAS, MINURSO, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OAS (observer), OIC, OSCE (partner), PCA, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNITAR, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNRWA, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador M. Nabil FAHMY chancery: 3521 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco FAX: [1] (202) 244-4319 telephone: [1] (202) 895-5400
Diplomatic representation from the US:	chief of mission: Ambassador C. David WELCH embassy: 5 Latin America St., Garden City, Cairo mailing address: Unit 64900, Box 15, APO AE 09839-4900 telephone: [20] (2) 797-3300 FAX: [20] (2) 797-3200
Flag description:	three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with the national emblem (a shield superimposed on a golden eagle facing the hoist side above a scroll bearing the name of the country in Arabic) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of Syria, which has two green stars, and to the flag of Iraq, which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band

Economy — overview:	Lack of substantial progress on economic reform since the mid 1990s has limited foreign direct investment in Egypt and kept annual GDP growth in the range of 2-3 percent in 2001-03. Egyptian officials in late 2003 and early 2004 proposed new privatization and customs reform measures, but the government is likely to pursue these initiatives cautiously and gradually to avoid a public backlash over potential inflation or layoffs associated with the reforms. Monetary pressures on an overvalued Egyptian pound led the government to float the currency in January 2003, leading to a sharp drop in its value and consequent inflationary pressure. The existence of a black market for hard currency is evidence that the government continues to influence the official exchange rate offered in banks. In September 2003, Egyptian officials increased subsidies on basic foodstuffs, helping to calm a frustrated public but widening an already deep budget deficit. Egypt’s balance-of-payments position was not hurt by the war in Iraq in 2003, as tourism and Suez Canal revenues fared well. The development of an export market for natural gas is a bright spot for future growth prospects, but improvement in the capital-intensive hydrocarbons sector does little to reduce Egypt’s persistent unemployment.
GDP:	purchasing power parity — $294.3 billion (2003 est.)
GDP — real growth rate:	2.8% (2003 est.)
GDP — per capita:	purchasing power parity — $3,900 (2003 est.)
GDP — composition by sector:	agriculture: 17% industry: 33% services: 50% (2003)
Population below poverty line:	16.7% (2000 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:	lowest 10%: 3.7% highest 10%: 29.5% (1999)
Distribution of family income — Gini index:	34.4 (1999)
Inflation rate (consumer prices):	4.5% (2003 est.)
Labor force:	20.1 million (2003 est.)
Labor force — by occupation:	agriculture 32%, industry 17%, services 51% (2001 est.)
Unemployment rate:	9.9% (2003 est.)
Budget:	revenues: $14 billion expenditures: $18.1 billion, including capital expenditures of $2.7 billion (2003 est.)
Industries:	textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, hydrocarbons, construction, cement, metals
Industrial production growth rate:	1.5% (2003 est.)
Electricity — production:	75.23 billion kWh (2001)
Electricity — production by source:	fossil fuel: 81% hydro: 19% other: 0% (2001) nuclear: 0%
Electricity — consumption:	69.96 billion kWh (2001)
Electricity — exports:	0 kWh (2001)
Electricity — imports:	0 kWh (2001)
Oil — production:	816,900 bbl/day (2001 est.)
Oil — consumption:	562,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)
Oil — exports:	NA
Oil — imports:	NA
Oil — proved reserves:	3.308 billion bbl (1 January 2002)
Natural gas — production:	21.2 billion cu m (2001 est.)
Natural gas — consumption:	21.2 billion cu m (2001 est.)
Natural gas — exports:	0 cu m (2001 est.)
Natural gas — imports:	0 cu m (2001 est.)
Natural gas — proved reserves:	1.264 trillion cu m (1 January 2002)
Agriculture — products:	cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats
Exports:	$8.759 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
Exports — commodities:	crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals
Exports — partners:	US 18.5%, Italy 13.8%, UK 8.5%, France 4% (2002)
Imports:	$14.75 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
Imports — commodities:	machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, wood products, fuels
Imports — partners:	US 16.1%, Germany 7.5%, Italy 6.4%, France 6.2%, China 4.8% (2002)
Debt — external:	$30 billion (2003 est.)
Economic aid — recipient:	ODA, $1.2 billion (2001)
Currency:	Egyptian pound (EGP)
Currency code:	EGP
Exchange rates:	Egyptian pounds per US dollar — 5.85 (2003), 4.5 (2002), 3.97 (2001), 3.47 (2000), 3.4 (1999)
Fiscal year:	1 July — 30 June

Telephones — main lines in use:	7.43 million (2002)
Telephones — mobile cellular:	4,494,700 (2002)
Telephone system:	general assessment: large system; underwent extensive upgrading during 1990s and is reasonably modern; Internet access and cellular service are available domestic: principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay international: country code — 20; satellite earth stations — 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat; 5 coaxial submarine cables; tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; a participant in Medarabtel and a signatory to Project Oxygen (a global submarine fiber-optic cable system)
Radio broadcast stations:	AM 42 (plus 15 repeaters), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999)
Television broadcast stations:	98 (September 1995)
Internet country code:	.eg
Internet hosts:	3,061 (2002)
Internet users:	1.9 million (2002)

Railways:	total: 5,105 km standard gauge: 5,105 km 1.435-m gauge (42 km electrified) (2002)
Highways:	total: 64,000 km paved: 49,984 km unpaved: 14,016 km (1999 est.)
Waterways:	3,500 km note: includes the Nile, Lake Nasser, Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in the delta; Suez Canal (193.5 km including approaches), used by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 16.1 m of water
Pipelines:	condensate 327 km; condensate/gas 94 km; gas 6,145 km; liquid petroleum gas 382 km; oil 5,726 km; oil/gas/water 36 km; water 62 km (2003)
Ports and harbors:	Alexandria, Al Ghardaqah, Aswan, Asyut, Bur Safajah, Damietta, Marsa Matruh, Port Said, Suez
Merchant marine:	total: 159 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 1,194,696 GRT/1,754,815 DWT foreign-owned: China 2, Cyprus 1, Denmark 1, Greece 6, Lebanon 2, Turkey 1 registered in other countries: 50 (2003 est.) by type: bulk 18, cargo 41, container 5, passenger 64, petroleum tanker 14, roll on/roll off 13, short-sea/passenger 4
Airports:	89 (2003 est.)
Airports — with paved runways:	total: 72 over 3,047 m: 13 2,438 to 3,047 m: 38 under 914 m: 4 (2003 est.) 1,524 to 2,437 m: 17
Airports — with unpaved runways:	total: 17 under 914 m: 9 (2003 est.) 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 5
Heliports:	2 (2003 est.)

Military branches:	Army, Navy, Air Force, Air Defense Command
Military manpower — military age:	20 years of age (2004 est.)
Military manpower — availability:	males age 15-49: 20,340,716 (2004 est.)
Military manpower — fit for military service:	males age 15-49: 13,148,944 (2004 est.)
Military manpower — reaching military age annually:	males: 756,233 (2004 est.)
Military expenditures — dollar figure:	$2,443.2 million (2003)
Military expenditures — percent of GDP:	3.6% (2003)

Disputes — international:	Egypt and Sudan retain claims to administer the triangular areas that extend north and south of the 1899 Treaty boundary along the 22nd Parallel, but have withdrawn their military presence — Egypt is economically developing and effectively administers the «Hala’ib triangle» north of the Treaty line
Illicit drugs:	transit point for Southwest Asian and Southeast Asian heroin and opium moving to Europe, Africa, and the US; transit stop for Nigerian couriers; concern as money-laundering site due to lax financial regulations and enforcement

See also:

• Egypt at a Glance

• Meet the Ex-President of Egypt

Last Updated: July 20th, 2011