Define and exemplify the following terms: paradigm, lexeme, grammatical category
В языковой системе все единицы находятся в парадигматических (ассоциативных) отношениях, то есть противопоставлены друг другу по каким-то признакам.
Например, инфинитив “towork” противопоставляется причастиям “working,worked” и герундию “working”, а так же личной форме глагола “work”. Личные формы глагола противопоставляются по временным признакам (work–worked–willwork), по лицу (Iwork–heworks), по признакам глагола, наклонения и т.д.
По значению глагол “ work” противопоставляется как своим синонимам (toil,moil,labor,plod), так и антонимам (fail,inact).
Во всех этих случаях между единицами системы существуют парадигматические отношения, а ряды единиц образуют парадигматические ряды, или парадигмы.
Парадигма– набор однородных форм, поставленных друг к другу по семантическим и формальным признакам. Существуют не только морфологические, но и лексические, а так же синтаксические и другие виды парадигм. В речи, естественно, никто парадигмами не говорит. Слова в речи, соединяясь друг с другом, вступают между собой в отношения, основанные на линейном характере языка, который исключает возможность произнесения двух элементов одновременно. Эти элементы выстраиваются один за другим в потоке речи, выступая, таким образом, в линейные или синтагматические отношения друг с другом. Последовательность слов в речи является примером синтагматических отношений на уровне слов. Данный вид отношений определяет значение слова, используемого говорящим.
Например, значение глагола “to get”:He got a letter.He got tired. He got to London. He got the piano throught he door.
Следует обратить внимание на правильное употребление терминов «противопоставление — контраст» и «отношения – связи». О противопоставлении говорится в парадигматическом ряду, единицы которого находятся в определенных отношениях.
Во временных отношениях: he works–he worked,
в синонимических: work – job – occupation.
В линейном ряду все единицы связаны синтагматически, контрастируют между собой и находятся в тесной связи, влияя друг на друга.
Например, слово “drop” употребляясь в сочетаниях с разными существительными, приобретает новое значение «немножко».
E.g: a drop of water, a drop of love, a drop of attention.
Парадигматические отношения и синтагматические связи существуют между всеми единицами языка, в том числе и между предложениями.
1. Парадигматические отношения в морфологии
1. Грамматическая категория как система однородных грамматических форм языка.
Грамматическая категория – это система выражения обобщенного грамматического значения, осуществляемого через парадигматическое соотношение форм.
Таким образом, мы имеем дело с новым понятиями: грамматическая форма и грамматическое значение. Только их единство дает грамматическую категорию.
Грамматическое значение – это обобщенное значение группы слов, абстрагированное от конкретного, индивидуального значения отдельных слов, входящих в эту группу.
E.g: tables, boys, chairs, houses.
Каждое из этих слов имеет свое, только ему присущее значение, но имеется одно значение, их объединяющее – значение множественности.
Грамматическая форма – это оппозиция противопоставляемых форм (например, единственного и множественного числа существительных). Возможность формального противопоставления единственного числа множественному дает возможность говорить о существовании в языке общей категории числа. То есть общая категория есть там, где имеется как минимум две индивидуальных категории.
Грамматическая категория как единица системы представляет собой некоторую модель, объективно отражающую факторы речи.
Для выделения грамматической категории необходимо:
-
чтобы она соотносилась с определенной единицей данного уровня;
-
чтобы она имела план содержания (грамматическое значение) и план выражения (набор противопоставляемых грамматических форм, то есть парадигму.)
-
чтобы она проявлялась независимо от лексического значения отдельных лексических единиц и независимо от контекста.
Это значит, что всякое появившееся в речи слово уже обладает определенными категориями: если это существительное, то оно имеет категории числа и падежа, если глагол – категории времени, залога, наклонения, вида и т.д.
A paradigm in linguistics is a system of forms of a single word that reflects modifications of a word according to its inherent grammatical categories; a sample of the type of declension or conjugation. The concept of «paradigm» is used in word formation, lexicology, and syntax.
Парадигма в языкознании — система форм одного слова, отражающая видоизменения слова по присущим ему грамматическим категориям; образец типа склонения или спряжения. Понятие «парадигма» употребляется в словообразовании, лексикологии, и синтаксисе.
Лексема в лингвистике — слово как абстрактная единица морфологического анализа
Lexeme in linguistics-a word as an abstract unit of morphological analysis
A lexeme (from — word, expression, turn of speech) in linguistics is a word as an independent unit of language, considered in all its forms and meanings.
Граммати́ческая катего́рия — замкнутая система взаимоисключающих и противопоставленных друг другу грамматических значений (граммем), задающая разбиение обширной совокупности словоформ…
A grammatical category is a closed system of mutually exclusive and opposed grammatical meanings (grammemes) that defines the division of an extensive set of word forms…
§ 5.1 Morphemes. Free and bound forms. Morphological classification of words. Word-families
If
we describe a wоrd
as an autonomous unit of language in which a
particular meaning is associated with a particular sound complex and
which is capable of a particular grammatical employment and able to
form a sentence by itself (see p. 9),
we
have the possibility to distinguish it from the other fundamental
language unit, namely, the morpheme.
A
morpheme is
also an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern.
But unlike a word it is not autonomous. Morphemes occur in speech
only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a
word may consist of a single morpheme. Nor are they divisible into
smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as
the minimum meaningful language unit.
The
term morpheme
is derived from Gr morphe
‘form’
+
-eme.
The
Greek suffix -erne
has
been adopted by linguists to denote the smallest significant or
distinctive
unit.
(Cf. phoneme,
sememe.) The
morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these
cases is a recurring discrete unit of speech.
A
form is said to be free if it may stand alone without changing its
meaning;
if not, it is a bound
form, so called because it is always bound
to something else. For example, if we compare the words sportive
and
elegant
and
their parts, we see that sport,
sportive, elegant may
occur alone as utterances, whereas eleg-,
-ive, -ant are
bound forms because they never occur alone. A word is, by L.
Bloomfield’s definition, a minimum free form. A morpheme is said to
be either bound or free. This statement should bе
taken
with caution. It means that some morphemes are capable of forming
words without adding other morphemes: that is, they are homonymous to
free forms.
According
to the role they play in constructing words, morphemes are subdivided
into roots
and affixes.
The latter are further subdivided, according to their position, into
prefixes,
suffixes
and
infixes,
and according to their function and meaning, into derivational
and functional
.affixes,
the latter also called endings
or outer
formatives.
When
a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what
remains is a stem
(or astern base).
The stem
77
expresses
the lexical and the part of speech meaning. For the word hearty
and
for the paradigm heart
(sing.)
—hearts
(pi.)1
the stem may be represented as heart-.
This
stem is a single morpheme, it contains nothing but the root, so it is
a simple
stem.
It is also a
free
stem
because it is homonymous to the word heart.
A
stem
may also be defined as the part of the word that remains unchanged
throughout its paradigm. The stem of the paradigm hearty
—
heartier
—
(the)
heartiest
is
hearty-.
It
is a free stem, but as it consists of a root morpheme and an affix,
it is not simple but derived. Thus, a stem containing one or more
affixes is
a derived
stem.
If after deducing the affix the remaining stem is not homonymous to a
separate word of the same root, we call it abound
stem.
Thus, in the word cordial
‘proceeding
as if from the heart’, the adjective-forming suffix can be
separated on the analogy with such words as bronchial,
radial, social. The
remaining stem, however, cannot form a separate word by itself, it is
bound. In cordially
and
cordiality,
on
the other hand, the derived stems are free.
Bound
stems are especially characteristic of loan words. The point may
be illustrated by the following French borrowings: arrogance,
charity,
courage, coward, distort, involve, notion, legible and
tolerable,
to
give but a few.2
After the affixes of these words are taken away the remaining
elements are: arrog-,
char-, cour-, cow-, -tort, -volve, not-, leg-, toler-, which
do not coincide with any semantically related independent words.
Roots
are main morphemic vehicles of a given idea in a given language at a
given stage of its development. A root may be also regarded as the
ultimate constituent element which remains after the removal of all
functional and derivational affixes and does not admit any further
analysis.
It is the common element of words within a word-family.
Thus,
-heart-
is
the common root of the following series of words: heart,
hearten,
dishearten, heartily, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweetheart,
heart-broken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly, etc.
In some of these, as, for example,
in hearten,
there
is only one root; in others the root -heart
is
combined with some other root, thus forming a compound like
sweetheart.
The
root word heart
is
unsegmentable, it is non-motivated morphologically. The morphemic
structure of all the other words in this word-family is obvious —
they
are segmentable as consisting of at least two distinct morphemes.
They may be further subdivided into: 1)
those
formed by affixation or
affixational
derivatives
consisting of a root morpheme and one or more affixes: hearten,
dishearten, heartily, heartless,
hearty, heartiness; 2)
compounds,
in which two, or very rarely
more, stems simple or derived are combined into a lexical unit:
sweetheart,
heart-shaped, heart-broken or3)
derivational
compounds
where words of a phrase are joined together by composition and
affixation: kind-hearted.
This
last process is also called phrasal derivation
((kind
heart) + -ed)).
1
A
paradigm is defined here as the system of grammatical forms
characteristic of a word. See also p. 23.
2 Historical
lexicology shows how sometimes the stem becomes bound due to the
internal changes in the stem that accompany the addition of affixes;
сf.
broad
:
: breadth,
clean :
: cleanly
[‘klenli],
dear
:
: dearth
[dэ:θ],
grief
:
: grievous.
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There
exist word-families with several tmsegmentable members, the
derived elements being formed by conversion or clipping. The
word-family
with the noun father
as its centre
contains alongside affixational derivatives fatherhood,
fatherless, fatherly a
verb father
‘to
adopt’ or ‘to originate’ formed by conversion.
We
shall now present the different types of morphemes starting with the
root.
It
will at once be noticed that the root in English is very often
homonymous
with the word. This fact is of fundamental importance as it is
one of the most specific features of the English language arising
from its general grammatical system on the one hand, and from its
phonemic system on the other. The influence of the analytical
structure of the language
is obvious. The second point, however, calls for some explanation.
Actually
the usual phonemic shape most favoured in English is one single
stressed syllable: bear,
find, jump, land, man, sing, etc.
This does not
give much space for a second morpheme to add classifying
lexico-grammatical
meaning to the lexical meaning already present in the root-stem,
so the lexico-grammatical meaning must be signalled by distribution.
In
the phrases a
morning’s drive, a morning’s ride, a morning’s walk the
words drive,
ride and
walk
receive
the lexico-grammatical meaning of a noun not due to the structure of
their stems, but because they are preceded by a genitive.
An
English word does not necessarily contain formatives indicating to
what part of speech it belongs. This holds true even with respect to
inflectable
parts of speech, i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives. Not all roots are
free forms, but productive
roots,
i.e. roots capable of producing
new words, usually are. The semantic realisation of an English word
is therefore very specific. Its dependence on context is further
enhanced
by the widespread occurrence of homonymy both among root morphemes
and affixes. Note how many words in the following statement
might be ambiguous if taken in isolation: A
change of work is as good
as a rest.
The
above treatment of the root is purely synchronic, as we have taken
into consideration only the facts of present-day English. But the
same
problem of the morpheme serving as the main signal of a given lexical
meaning is studied in etymology.
Thus, when approached historically
or diachronically the word heart
will
be classified as Common Germanic.
One will look for cognates,
i.e. words descended from a
common ancestor. The cognates of heart
are
the Latin cor,
whence
cordial
‘hearty’,
‘sincere’, and so cordially
and
cordiality,
also
the Greek kardia,
whence
English cardiac
condition. The
cognates outside the English
vocabulary are the Russian cepдце,
the
German Herz,
the
Spanish corazon
and
other words.
To
emphasise the difference between the synchronic and the diachronic
treatment, we shall call the common element of cognate words in
different
languages not their root but their radical
element.
79
These
two types of approach, synchronic and diachronic, give rise to two
different principles of arranging morphologically related words into
groups. In the first case series of words with a common root morpheme
in which derivatives are opposable to their unsuffixed and unprefixed
bases, are combined, сf.
heart,
hearty, etc.
The second grouping results in families of historically cognate
words, сf.
heart,
cor (Lat),
Herz
(Germ),
etc.
Unlike
roots, affixes are always bound forms. The difference between
suffixes and prefixes, it will be remembered, is not confined to
their respective position, suffixes being “fixed after” and
prefixes “fixed before” the stem. It also concerns their function
and meaning.
A
suffix
is
a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new
derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class,
сf.
-en,
-y, -less in
hearten,
hearty, heartless. When
both the underlying and the resultant forms belong to the same part
of speech, the suffix serves to differentiate between
lexico-grammatical classes by rendering some very general
lexico-grammatical meaning. For instance, both -ify
and
-er
are
verb suffixes, but the first characterises causative verbs, such as
horrify,
purify, rarefy, simplify, whereas
the second is mostly typical of frequentative verbs: flicker,
shimmer, twitter and
the like.
If we realise that suffixes
render the most general semantic component of the word’s lexical
meaning by marking the general class of phenomena to which the
referent of the word belongs, the reason why suffixes are as a rule
semantically fused with the stem stands explained.
A
prefix
is a derivational morpheme standing before the root and modifying
meaning, cf.
hearten
—
dishearten.
It
is only with verbs and statives that a prefix may serve to
distinguish one part of speech from another, like in earth
n
—
unearth
v,
sleep
n
—
asleep
(stative).
It
is interesting that as a prefix en-
may
carry the same meaning of being or bringing into a certain state as
the suffix -en,
сf.
enable,
encamp, endanger,
endear, enslave and
fasten,
darken, deepen, lengthen, strengthen.
Preceding
a verb stem, some prefixes express the difference between a
transitive and an intransitive verb: stay
v
and outstay
(sb)
vt. With a few exceptions prefixes modify the stem for time (pre-,
post-), place
(in-,
ad-) or
negation (un-,
dis-) and
remain semantically rather independent of the stem.
An
infix
is an affix placed within the word, like -n-
in
stand.
The
type is not productive.
An
affix should not be confused with a
combining
form.
A
combining form is also a bound form but it can be distinguished from
an affix historically by the fact that it is always borrowed from
another language, namely, from Latin or Greek, in which it existed as
a free form, i.e. a separate word, or also as a combining form. They
differ from all other borrowings in that they occur in compounds and
derivatives that did not exist in their original language but were
formed only in modern times in English, Russian, French, etc., сf.
polyclinic,
polymer;
stereophonic, stereoscopic, telemechanics, television. Combining
forms
are mostly international. Descriptively a combining form differs from
an affix, because it can occur as one constituent of a form whose
only other constituent is an affix, as in graphic,
cyclic.
80
Also
affixes are characterised either by preposition with respect to the
root (prefixes) or by postposition (suffixes), whereas the same
combining
form may occur in both positions. Cf.
phonograph,
phonology and
telephone,
microphone, etc.
The word as a grammatical unit has its form (grammatical form) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). Grammatical forms of words (word forms) are typically constructed by morphemes added synthetically, or structurals added analytically:
Number: book – books, family – families, leaf – leaves.
Case: my sister’s children, the title of the book, the students’ papers.
Aspect: was drawing – drew, repaired – have repaired – have been repairing.
Degrees of comparison: cold – colder – the coldest, difficult – more difficult – the most difficult, less interesting – the least interesting.
By grammatical forms we understand variants of a word having the same lexical meaning but differing grammatically. In other words, the grammatical form (grameme) is the total of formal means to render a particular grammatical meaning.
There are the following ways of changing grammatical forms of words:
· The use of affixes as word changing morphemic elements added to the root of the word: e(s) (the plural of nouns, the possessive of nouns, the 3rd person singular of Present Simple); ing (Present Participle, Gerund); er/est (Comparative and Superlative Degrees); ed (the Past Simple of the Indicative Mood, the Subjunctive Mood, Past Participle).
· Sound interchange as the use of different root sounds in grammatical forms of a word, which may be either consonants or vowels (e.g. speak – spoke, crisis – crises, write – wrote, wife – wives, analysis – analyses).
· Suppletivity as creating grammatical forms of a word coming from different roots (e.g. far – further, he – him, bad – worst, was – been).
· Analytical forms being made up of two components: a notional word used as an unchanged element carrying a lexical meaning and a structural changed grammatically but expressing no lexical meaning (e.g. will be reading, can sing, will be able to translate, would bring, less expensive, the most beautiful).
Grammatical forms being on the plane of expression (form) and possessing morphemic features, expressed either syntactically or analytically, convey certain grammatical meanings being on the plane of content (meaning) shaped in morphology as meanings of number, case, degree, voice, tense, etc. The system of grammatical forms of a word is called a paradigm with paradigmatic lines, the elements of which build up typically the so called privative morphological opposition based on a morphological differential feature (synthetical or analytical) present in its strong (marked) member and absent in its weak (unmarked) member. Compare: zero::Ved; zero::shall/willV; zero::Ving. Of minor types is an equipollent opposition (person forms of the verb ‘be’: am – is – are) and a gradual opposition (zero::adjer::adjest). Thus a grammatical paradigm is represented by the opposition of marked and non-marked members specifically connected with paradigmatic relations in order to express number, tense, mood, case, etc. The general grammatical meaning of two or more grammatical forms in a paradigm opposed to each other generates a grammatical category. The evidence is seen in the following examples:
the word forms ‘ student, book ’denote singularity, while ‘ books, students ’ denote plurality; as opposed to each other in the paradigmatic series, they have one grammatical meaning, that of number; thus the opposition of grammatical forms makes up the category of number;
the word forms ‘ swims, is working ’indicate reference to present including the moment of speaking, whereas ‘ swam, was working ’ indicate reference to past excluding the moment of speaking; and the opposition of grammatical forms in the paradigmatic series having the grammatical meaning of reference to the moment of speaking makes up the category of tense.
Taking into account the given assumptions, the grammatical category is defined as a system, expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms, analytical or synthetical, which makes the specific peculiarity of the language.
Key words:
levels of grammatical description уровни грамматического описания
constituent part конституирующая часть
grammatical system грамматическая система
prescriptive предписывающая без объяснения
explanatory объяснительная
kernel ядерная
theme тема (известная информация)
rheme рема (новая информация)
informative value информативная значимость
speech act речевой акт
coherent целостный
cohesive связный
grammatical formation of utterance грамматическая организация высказывания
grammatical structure of language грамматическая структура языка
coherent system целостная система
morpheme морфема
word слово
phrase фраза
sentence предложение
grammatical unit грамматическая единица
word form словоформа
morphological морфологический
categorical features категориальные признаки
parts of speech части речи
communicative unit коммуникативная единица
structural unit структурная единица
nominative unit номинативная единица
segmental сегментный
Morphology Морфология
Syntax Синтаксис
subject matter предмет изучения
paradigm парадигма
grammatical structure of language грамматическая структура языка
synthetical ситетический
analytical аналитический
grameme граммема (словоформа с грамматическим значением)
inflection инфлексия
affixation аффиксация
suppletivity суплетивизм
grammatical form грамматическая форма
grammatical meaning грамматическое значение
grammatical category грамматическая категория
functional words функциональные слова
auxiliary вспомогательный глагол
article артикль
preposition предлог
fixed word order фиксированный порядок слов
grammatical relations грамматические отношения
Number Число
Case Падеж
Aspect Вид
Degrees of comparison Степени сравнения
root of the word корень слова
plural множественное число
possessive притяжательный падеж
3rd person singular 3 лицо ед. число
sound change чередование
analytical form аналитическая форма
notional word знаменательное слово
paradigmatic line парадигматический ряд
privative morphological opposition привативная морфологическая оппозиция
strong (marked) member сильныймаркированный компонент
weak(unmarked)member слабыйнемаркированный компонент
equipollent opposition эквиполентная оппозиция
gradual opposition последовательная оппозиция
paradigmatic relations парадигматические отношения
tense грамматическое время
mood наклонение
case падеж
singularity единичность
plurality множественность
reference соотнесенность
1. Theoritical grammar studies the grammatical structure of the language and the way the utterances are formed.
2. Two main branches of theoretical grammar are morphology and syntax.
3. Syntagmatic relations appear between words in a line of speech.
4. Paradigmatic relations appear between words united by common features.
5. Paradigm is all the possible grammatical forms of the word.
6. Synchronic variations are variants of the word form, existing at the same time.
7. Diachronic variations are variants of the word form, existing at different time.
8. Systemic approach to grammar study relies upon the notion that the language is a system of phonetical, grammatical and lexical signs.
9. First grammars of English were based upondead languages.
10. Comprehensive grammar announced that the role of grammar in communication is determined by understanding.
11. Synthetic languages express(convey) grammatical forms(meaning) by means of morphemes.
12. Feature of analytical structure in Modern English (Analytical languages have) is fixed order of words.
13. Old English was a synthetic language.
14. In middle english morphemic system of marking grammatical form simplified.
15. Auxiliary verbs appeared in Middle English.
16. Modern English an analytical language with some elements of synthetic structure.
17. The minimum segmental unit of a word with the potential to convey the meaning is a morpheme.
18. The morpheme that can be used independently without any other ones is calledfree.
19. Grammatical categories carries abstract meaning.
20. The structure of the category can be presented as the opposition.
21. The categories of English noun are plurality, number, case.
22. The parts of speech with individual meaning are called notional.
23. Modal verbs belong to the group of semi-notional words.
Test 2.
1) Paradigmatic series is similar grammatical forms of words.
2) Generative grammar studies origin and development of grammar.
3) Universal grammar studies grammatical phenomena, typical for all languages.
4) Pedagogical grammar studies grammar teaching.
5) Descriptive grammar announced that grammar should be studied on the basis of oral speech, real speech situations.
6) English belongs to the family of Indo-European languages.
7) English belongs to the group of Germanic languages.
Declension is the change of nouns in case and number.
9) Conjugation is the change of verbs in tense, person and number.
10) Synthetic languages express grammatical forms by means of morphemes.
11) Analytical languages have a fixed order of words.
12) Old English was a synthetic language.
13) In Old English article was absent.
14) In Old English order of words was free.
15) In Old English adverb was developing.
16) In Middle English morphemic system of marking grammatical form simplified.
17) Auxiliary verbs appeared in Middle English.
18) Modem English is an analytical language with some elements of synthetic structure.
19) Feature of analytical structure in Modem English is fixed order of words (и можетбыть auxiliaries).
20) Feature of synthetic structure in Modem English is foreign endings for plural.
21) Ablaut is vowel interchange in the root of the verb.
22) Suppletion is the use ot ditferent words for denoting grammatical forms.
23) Two contradicting factors, balancing the development of language aregeneration and economy.
24) morpheme that can be used independently used without any other ones is called free.
25) minimum segmental unit of a word with the potential to convey the meaning is famous a morpheme.
26) The morpheme that changes the meaning of the word is called lexical.
27) — The morpheme that indicates grammatical form is called grammatical.
28) The morpheme that denotes grammatical class and changes the meaning of the word is called lexico-grammatical.
29) Foreign grammatical morphemes came to English from French and Latin.
30) Grammatical category carries abstract meaning.
31) Grammatical category can be expressed by the grammatical means only.
32) Semantic category can be expressed by any linguistic means.
33) The structure of the number category can be presented as an opposition.
34) The categories of English noun are number, gender, case.
35) The categories of English verb are tense, aspect, person.
36) The category of English adjective is comparison.
37) The category of English adverb is Case.
38) The categories of English pronoun are nominative case, genitive case.
39) Morphemic structure of the word “revolution” is Root + suffix.
40) Morphemic structure of the word “unreal” is prefix+root.
41) Morphemic structure of the word “intricacies” is root + suffix+ending.
42) Morphemic structure of the word “unpredictable” is prefix+ root + suffix.
43) In the word “steamboat” the morpheme “steam” is free.
44) In the word “divers” the morpheme “s” is bound.
45) In the word “garments” the morpheme “garment” is lexical.
46) In the word “uncertain” the morpheme “un” is lexical.
47) In the word “probably” the morpheme “ly” is lexico-grammatical.
48) In the word “welcomed” the morpheme “ed” is grammatical.
Тест №3
1) In the form “hastened” we can see such categories as aspect, tense.
2) In the form “this” we can see such categories as number.
3) In the form “those” we can see such categories as number.
4) In the form “us” we can see such categories as person, number.
5) In the form “was provided” we can see such categories as aspect, tense, voice.
6) The parts of speech with individual meaning are called notional.
7) Modal verbs belong to the group of semi-notional words.
The ending –s used in the structure of nouns indicates the plural of nouns in some cases.
9) Gender of English nouns is in most cases determined by the meaning of the word.
10) The adjectives in the English language can be classified as relative and qualitative.
11) Double comparison can be exemplified by the form “much more beautiful”.
12) Demonstrative, personal, indefinite – these are the groups of pronouns.
13) Animate, inanimate – these are the groups of nouns.
14) Relative, qualitative – these are the groups of adjectives.
15) In the sentence “Every train brought squads, companies, battalions of them.” the word “train” is a notional part of speech.
16) In the sentence “The barracks were over-run.” the word “were” is a semi-notional part of speech.
17) In the sentence “They could not be permitted to starve” the word “could” is a semi-notional part of speech.
18) In the sentence “The weather was on the side of the newcomers to begin with; such an open, friendly winter was never known in Kansas before” the word “open” is anadjective.
19) In the sentence “The weather was on the side of the newcomers to begin with; such an open, friendly winter was never known in Kansas before” the word “before” is an adverb.
20) Countable nouns can be exemplified be the word effort.
21) Proper nouns can be exemplified by the word London.
22) Common nouns can be exemplified by the word poverty.
23) Animate nouns can be exemplified by the word bull.
24) Qualitative adjectives can be exemplified by the word acute.
25) Positive degree can be exemplified by the word old.
26) Triple comparison can be exemplified by the word much more better.
27) Superlative degree can be exemplified by the word the least.
28) Analytical comparison can be exemplified by the word more cunningly.
29) Suppletive comparison can be exemplified by the word worse.
30) The pronoun “You” is personal.
31) The pronoun “anything” is indefinite.
32) The case of the pronoun “me” is objective.
33) The case of the pronoun “I” is nominative.
Тест 4. (Морфология)
1) The verb form in the sentence “The house had smelled for a week.” is an example ofactive voice.
2) An example of back-shift is a sentence Tomorrow they arrive at six sharp.
3) An example of a stative verb is to know.
4) An example of a non-finite form of the verb is reading.
5) Qualitative adverbs can be exemplified by the word…easily.
6) Qualitative adverbs can be exemplified by the word…dryly.
7) Circumstantial adverbs can be exemplified by the word..Here.
Intensifying adverbs can be exemplified by the word…highly.
9) The case of the pronoun “her”…objective.
10) The case of the pronoun “I” is…nominative.
11) The numeral “tenth” is…ordinal.
12) In the sentence “And then too, there was the matter of his working weekends and evenings at the boat yard” the word “of’ is…preposition.
13) In the sentence “And then too, there was the matter of his working weekends and evenings at the boat yard” the word “too” is…particle.
14) In the sentence “It would be two months before all the lobster boats and the few pleasure-craft were scraped, painted, and hauled out of that sagging, leaking old boat-house and launched” the word “the” is…article.
15) In the sentence “»Well,» he said, coming back to the task at hand, «lunch time is over. Back to work. the word “to” is…preposition.
Training test 4 (syntax)
1. A unit of syntax, presenting a lexico-grammatical unity and separated by pauses is called syntagma.
2. Asyndatic connection between units of syntax is performed though the absence of connecting elements.
3. Syndatic connection between units of syntax is performed though the use of connecting elements.
4. Syndatic connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination full of journalists.
5. Syndatic connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination preceded by part.
6. Syndatic connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination easy on problems.
7. Asyndatic connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination places are marked.
8. Asyndatic connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination he wrote.
9. Asyndatic connection between words in a word-combination can be exemplified by word-combination slightly older.
10. Coordinative connection between words in a word-combination «»can be exemplified by a word-combination public and private.
11. Coordinative connection between words in a word-combination «» can be exemplified by a word-combination weeks and weeks.
12. Coordinative connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination paper, ink and pen.
13. Dominational connection between can be exemplified by word-combination places are marked.
14. Dominational connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination he wrote.
15. Dominational connection between words can be exemplified by a word-combination slightly older.
16. Word-combination «This toast» is attributive.
17. Word-combination «banquet room» attributive.
18. Word-combination «places are marked» is predicative.
19. Word-combination «was widely reprinted» is primary adverbial.
20. Word-combination «sent copies» is direct objective.
21. Word-combination «him writing» is semi-predicative.
22. Word-combination «genteel audiences» is attributive.
23. Word-combination «became easily» is primary adverbial.
24. Word-combination «he was trying» is predicative.
25. Word-combination «initially delighted» is secondary adverbial.
26. Word-combination «to adapt persona» is direct objective.
27. Word-combination «slightly older» is secondary adverbial.
28. Idiomatic word-combinations can be exemplified by mixed feeling.
29. Idiomatic word-combinations can be exemplified by full of beans.
30. Culturally marked word-combinations can be exemplified Punch and Judy.
31. Connotative word-combinations can be exemplified by was praised by Mrs. Mary Fairbanks.
32. Culturally marked word-combinations can be exemplified black pudding.
33. Connotative word-combinations can be exemplified by even and nice.
34. Grammatical homonymy is The use of the same form with different grammatical meanings.
35. A factor of syntagmatic connection in English language is specific rhythmic structure.
Тест №5.
1. The main parts of the sentence are subject and predicate.
2. Secondary parts of the sentence are attribute, adverbial modifier, object.
3. Additional elements of the sentence are parenthesis, adressing enclosure.
4. Theme is old infromation, starting point of communication.
5. Rheme is new information, the main point of communication.
6. Chain and parallel are the ways of connecting clauses in complex sentences.
7. Ellipsis is omission of sentence parts /word parts (тут я в замешательстве.)
8. Inversion in English can be grammatical and stylistic.
9. The use of a shorter word instead of a phrase or a clause is called substitution.
10. Addition, morphological arrangement, deletion are transformations of the grammatical structure of the sentence.
11. Simple sentence can be exemplified by Don’t abuse me on account of that dinner-speech in reply to the toast to Woman.
12. One-member sentence can be exemplified by Rise and shine!
13. Composite sentence can be exemplified by Look at George Francis Train and don’t laugh.
14. The sentence “Look.” is imperative.
15. The sentence “How about if I take the kids?” is interrogative-declarative.
16. Actual division of the sentence presupposes its division into theme and rheme.
17. The sentence “O.K.” is interrogative-declarative.
18. In the sentence “On the way home he stopped at a general store and bought a Popsicle for each of the boys.” the word “for boys” is indirect object.
19. In this compound sentence “Spring comes slowly in upstate Maine, and this was still the mud season.” connection between clauses is additive.
20. In this complex sentence “Little Chandler’s thoughts ever since lunch-time had been of the great city London where Gallaher lived.” subbordinate clause is adverbial.
21. Punctuation mark with an external function in the sentence “I know this dumb.” is full stop.
22. Comma in the sentence “THIS country, during the last thirty or forty years, has produced some of the most remarkable cases of insanity.” is used for marking the end of the clause.
23. The use of quotation marks in the sentence “Teacher says, “Couldn’t your ol’ man do it?” is obligatory.
24. The use of comma in the sentence “Oh, cup a Java.” is optional.
Тест №6 (Macro syntax)
1. A sentence «He lost his way.» in a cluster of sentences «A man wanted to drive to Littlemorehampton. He lost his way.» is a….cumuleme.
2. A sentence «Short waves cannot pass aroud objects.» in a cluster of sentences «Short waves cannot pass around objects. Long waves can.»is a….dycteme.
3. Means of prospection in the sentence «There are three dictionaries of neologisms for Modern English, see further.» is ….see further.
4. Means of retrospection in a sentence «Dictionaries of slang, as it was mentioned, contain elements from areas of substandart speech such as vulgarisms, jargonisms, taboo words. curse-words, colloquialisms, etc.» is….as it was mentioned
5. In the dialogue «A: What are you doing at Christmas? B: We’re having my brother ang a friend for lunch on Christmas Day. A: Right.Mm» reference is the word….We at Christmas
6. In the dialogue «A: What are you doing at Christmas? B: We’re having my brother ang a friend for lunch on Christmas Day. A: Right.Mm» response token is the word ….Right
7. In the sentence «I’ll see you around six.» the word «around» is ….approximation
8. In the sentence «I’ll have to call you back, I’m afraid.» the phrase «I’m afraid» is ….stance marker
9. In the sentence «Paul, in this job that he’s got now, when he goes into the office, he’s never quite sure ehere he’s going to be sent.» the word «Paul» is ….reference
10. In the sentence «We can then have toxic effects. Right.» the word «Right» is ….pragmatic marker
11. In the sentence «I’ve told him hundreds of times to put the alarm clock on but he just doesn’t listen.» The phrase «hundreds of times» is ….stance marker
12. When we were on holiday, we the sentence «I had the goldfish for about three years.» the word «about» is ….approximation
13. In the sentence «Now Rio de Janeiro, there’s a fabulous city.» the word «Rio de Janeiro» is ….header
14. The question «You know what? is ….preface
15. The question «A: The shuttle would be out of the question, you see. B: How come?» is ….formulaic
16. The question «The what, sorry?» is ….follow — up
17. The question «A: Are you going to the match tonight? B: Yeah, I am. A: Do you mind if I tag along?» is ….two — step
18. The question «A: Margaret wants to talk to you. B: Oh, what about?» is ….follow — up
19. The question «Where are you going? Into town?» is ….two — step
20. In the sentences «Right, I suppose we should begin by considering the tricky question of the Norman invasion.» pragmatic markers have a function of ….opening
21. In the sentences «Anyway erm.Where was I?» pragmatic markers have afunction of ….resuming
22. In the sentences «B: Six sets of each. A: Fine.» pragmatic markers have a fnction of ….closing
23. In the sentences «He’s been too easy — going, not to say careless and stupid, walking across that mountain at nighfall and on his own too.» pragmatic markers have a function of ….reformulating
24. In the sentences «B: Never really thought abot it like that. Oh I forgot. Your washing’s up there. Sorry just noticed it.» pragmatic marker «oh «has a function of ….shifting
25. Pragmatic marker «and then» usually has a function of ….sequencing
26. In the sentences «A: Did you enjoy the film? B: Well, we enjoyed the first half but after that I’m not sure.» pragmatic markers have a function of ….diverting